Unit 4.

REPRODUCTION

What is reproduction? One of the main characteristics of living things is that they can reproduce. Reproduction is the process by which organisms produce new organisms, more or less similar to them.
Activity 1. Write two examples of reproduction in which offspring are genetically identical to their parent(s), and two examples in which offspring are genetically different from their parent(s).

There are two types of reproduction: Sexual reproduction; Asexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction involves a merging of two different cells (or at least their genetic material). The two cells are called gametes, the process of merging is called fertilization, and the cell which result is the zygote. Asexual reproduction is not linked to fertilization.

Asexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction, as we have just said, is not linked to a fusion of two cells. In asexual reproduction there is only one parent (in most cases), and the offspring are genetically identical to it.

Asexual reproduction

Activity 2. How do unicellular organisms reproduce asexually?

Asexual reproduction

Activity 2. How do unicellular organisms reproduce asexually?

Unicellular organisms reproduce asexually by cell division.

Asexual reproduction

Activity 3. What are the names of these types of cell division? What are the differences between them? 1

Asexual reproduction

Activity 3. What are the names of these types of cell division? What are the differences between them?

1. Binary fission. The two daughter cells are similar in size.

2. Budding (=Gemmation). The two daughter cells are of very different size. 2. Multiple division. There are more than two daughter cells.

Asexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction in animals

There are different ways of asexual reproduction in animals.
Activity 4. What is this animal? What type of animals does it belong to? Describe how it is reproducing.

Asexual reproduction in animals

Hydra is a polyp. It belongs to the Type Cnidaria.

Hydra (and many other animals) can reproduce asexually by means of budding. (Budding in pluricellular organisms is different from budding in unicellular organisms, seen before.)

Asexual reproduction in animals

Parent

Bud

To reproduce asexually by means of budding, the parent produces a bud at its side. From the bud, a new individual develops. Later, it separates from the parent.

Asexual reproduction in animals

In other animals, offspring produced by means of budding keep joint to the parent.

Activity 5. Is this an animal or a plant? What is it?

Asexual reproduction in animals

This is a coral. It belongs to the Type Cnidaria. It is not a single individual, but a colony. A colony is formed by means of budding, when the new individuals keep attached to the parent.

Asexual reproduction in animals

There are other types of asexual reproduction in animals.

Activity 6. What is this animal? What type does it belong to? How can it reproduce asexually?

Asexual reproduction in animals

Starfish belong to the echinoderms. They can reproduce asexually by fragmentation: an individual breaks into parts which give place to complete individuals.

Asexual reproduction in animals

Other animals, such as planaria (plate worms) also reproduce asexually by fragmentation.

Asexual reproduction in plants

Asexual reproduction in plants

Asexual reproduction is more common in plants than in animals. Many plants reproduce by vegetative reproduction.
Activity 7. What is this? What part of a plant is it? Can it be used for asexual reproduction?

Asexual reproduction in plants

Potatos are underground stems (tubers). From the buds, new stems and roots can grow, so a new individual can develop. If a potato separates from the plant and a new individual grows and develops, it is an example of vegetative reproduction.

Asexual reproduction in plants

Other plant structures can be used for vegetative reproduction. For example, rhizomes (other type of underground stem), aboveground stems (such as in strawberry), roots,

Activity 8. How do strawberry plants reproduce asexually? Explain it.

Sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction
In sexual reproduction, two different cells, called gametes, join. In many cases of sexual reproduction there are two parents, but sometimes there is only one parent which can produce both gametes. In sexual reproduction, the offspring are genetically diverse, receiving genes from both parents, but they are not identical to one of them.
Activity 9. How do the terms gamete, zygote and fertilization relate to one another?

Sexual reproduction

Activity 9. How do the terms gamete, zygote and fertilization relate to one another?

In sexual reproduction, there is a merging of two cells. The two cells are the gametes, the process of merging is the fertilization and the cell which results from the merging is the zygote.

Gametes

Fertilization Zygote

Sexual reproduction

In general, there are three stages in sexual reproduction: Gamete formation; Fertilization; Development.

Sexual reproduction in animals

Sexual reproduction in animals

All animals reproduce by sexual reproduction, and many of them also have asexual reproduction. In most animals there are separate sexes: Males produce male gametes, called spermatozoa (spermatozoon, in singular) or sperm cells. Females produce female gametes, called ova (ovum, in singular) or eggs.

Sexual reproduction in animals

Gametes are produced in the gonads (or sexual organs). The male gonads are the testicles, the female gonads are the ovaries. Spermatozoa are formed in the testicles. Spermatozoa (=sperm cells) are small and mobile. Ova are formed in the ovaries. Ova (=eggs) are big and immobile.

Sexual reproduction in animals

So, according to the sex, there are different types of individuals: Unisexual individuals have only one type of gonad and produce only one type of gamete. Some of them are males, others are females. Hermaphrodites have both types of gonad and can produce sperm and eggs. We can say that they are at the same time males and females.

Sexual reproduction in animals

In many unisexual species, males and females are very different. These differences are called sexual dimorphism.
Activity 10. These birds belong to the same species. What are they? Which is the male? Have you ever seen these birds? Where? Do you think that sexual dimorphism is related to song in birds?

Sexual reproduction in animals

Fertilization
Fertilization is the union of an ovum (=egg) and an spermatozoon (=sperm cell). When their nuclei unite, a zygote is formed.

Gametes

Fertilization Zygote

Sexual reproduction in animals: Fertilization

In animals there are two types of fertilization: External fertilization and Internal fertilization.
Activity 11. Many fish have external fertilization. What does the female do? After that, what does the male do? Why is it external fertilization?

Sexual reproduction in animals: Fertilization

External fertilization occurs outside the females body. First, the female releases the unfertilized eggs. Then, the male releases sperm to fertilize them. The fertilized eggs (zygotes) then develop into embryos, which will continue developing.

Sexual reproduction in animals: Fertilization

Many aquatic animals have external fertilization. Some terrestrial animals, such as amphibians, also have external fertilization.
Activity 12. What are these animals? Are they vertebrates, or invertebrates? What class do they belong to? Do they have external fertilization?

Sexual reproduction in animals: Fertilization

Activity 12. What are these animals? Are they vertebrates, or invertebrates? What class do they belong to? Do they have external fertilization?

Toads are amphibians. They have external fertilization. The male, smaller, is over the female, but they do not copulate. The female releases eggs and the male drops the sperm on them (outside the females body).

Sexual reproduction in animals: Fertilization

Internal fertilization occurs inside the females (or hermaphrodites) body. Spermatozoa have to go into the female reproductive system, in a process called copulation. Then, in many species, males have copulating organs (penises, penis in singular). Internal fertilization occurs in most terrestrial animals, and also in some fish.

Sexual reproduction in animals: Fertilization

5 1 6 4

Activity 13. This is a human female reproductive system. Match the numbers with the names: Uterus, Vagina, Endometrium, Cervix, Ovary, Fallopian tube. Where does fertilization take place?

Sexual reproduction in animals: Fertilization

2
3 4 5 6 1

Activity 14. This is a human male reproductive system. Match the numbers with the names: Prostate gland, Urethra, Testicle, Epididymis, Penis, Vas deferens. What is the way done by the sperm?

Sexual reproduction in animals: Fertilization

Embryonic development
Embryonic development includes the processes from the zygote to the birth of the new individual. Embryonic development involves cell divisions, cell differentiations and other processes.

Sexual reproduction in animals: Fertilization

There are three types of animals, depending on where embryonic development occurs: Viviparous. The embryo develops inside the females body. Most mammals are viviparous. In them, the embryo develops in the uterus, and the placenta connects the embryo with its mother and feeds the embryo through the umbilical chord. At the end of the embryonic development, the new individual is born.

Sexual reproduction in animals: Fertilization

Oviparous. The embryo develops inside an egg, normally outside the females body. At the end of the embryonic development, the egg hatches. Most invertebrates are oviparous. Among the vertebrates, birds and most reptiles, amphibians and fish are oviparous. Birds incubate their eggs. The egg hatches when the new bird breaks it and emerges.

Sexual reproduction in animals: Fertilization

Ovoviparous. The embryo develops inside an egg which remains inside the females body until it hatches. In some cases, the egg hatches inside the mothers body. Some sharks, snakes and lizards are ovoviviparous.

Activity 15. What is this animal? Is it a vertebrate, or an invertebrate? What class does it belong to?

Sexual reproduction in animals: Fertilization

Vipers are ovoviviparous. Other reptiles are also ovoviviparous.

Sexual reproduction in plants

Sexual reproduction in plants

All plants reproduce by sexual reproduction, and many of them have asexual reproduction aswell. Flowering plants constitute the largest group of plants. They form seeds and flowers as reproductive structures.

Sexual reproduction in plants

The flower and its parts

The flower is the reproductive structure of many plants. A typical flower has different parts.

Perianth Receptacle Peduncle

Activity 16. This image represents a typical flower. Write the name corresponding to each number. [Style, Stamen, Ovule, Petal (corolla), Filament, Ovary, Sepal (calyx), Stigma, Anther, Pistil]

Sexual reproduction in plants

Parts of the flower Calyx: Green sepals which protect the rest of the flower. They can be free or fused. Corolla: Coloured petals which protect the inner parts and attract pollinators. They can also be free or fused.

Sexual reproduction in plants

Stamens: The male reproductive part of the flower. A stamen consist of a filament and an anther, where pollen is produced and stored. Pistil(s): The female reproductive part of the flower. A pistil normally has three parts: stigma, style and ovary (which contains one or more ovules).

Sexual reproduction in plants

The process of sexual reproduction in plants

There are four stages in the process: - Formation of gametes. - Pollination and formation of pollen tube. - Fertilization. - Seed and fruit formation. Formation of gametes Pollen grains are produced in the anthers. Each pollen grain contains two male gametes. Female gametes (eggs) are formed inside the ovules. Each ovule contains one egg.

Sexual reproduction in plants

It is important to notice that in plants the ovule is not the female gamete. It is a multicellular structure, and inside each ovule there is one female gamete (egg).

Sexual reproduction in plants

Pollination and pollen tube formation Pollen grains are transported (by wind, insects,...) and arrive at the stigma of a flower. Then, each pollen grain develops a pollen tube, which grows through the pistil and reaches one ovule.

Sexual reproduction in plants

Fertilization Male gametes travel through the pollen tube. When the tube reaches an ovule, one male gamet fuses with the egg. Then the zygote is formed.

Sexual reproduction in plants

Seed and fruit formation After fertilization, important changes happen: The zygote divides and develops, becoming an embryo. The ovule grows and becomes a seed, containing the embryo. The ovary, and often other parts of the flower, grow and become a fruit, which contains one or more seeds. Fruits or seeds are dispersed (by wind, water or animals). Then, in adequate conditions, seeds germinate and form new plants.

Sexual reproduction in plants

Zygote
Growth and

Embryo
development

Ovule Ovary (...)

Seed Fruit