Training on Radio Monitoring & Spectrum Management for ASP

23 31 May 2005 Beijing, China

Fundamentals of Radio Spectrum Management

E. Behdad

Source: ITU Spectrum Management & Monitoring Handbooks

Fundamentals of Radio Spectrum Management

Agenda
International aspects
Overview of ITU and its three Sectors (ITU-R, ITU-T, ITU-D) Frequency & Wavelength bands, propagation modes of various Frequency Bands World Regional Division against Frequency Allocation International allocation Table/ frequency allocations to services Radio Regulations (ITU-R RR) Allotment / Assignment Plans & example of general terms used in RR Frequency planning methods Procedures for registration of an assignment in ITU-MIFR Importance of Frequency Management Legislation, Policy and Regulations National Frequency allocation Table Frequency assignment and Licensing National Spectrum Management and Monitoring System Procedure of Radio Monitoring Station Management

National aspects

Overview of the Course

Radio Frequency Spectrum

no input

Spectrum as a natural resource: equally is available in every country;

unlike the other resources can travel across national boundaries; cannot be destructed, but it can be abused; is a limited resource.

Demand

gem a n Ma

Supports: National & international communications including: National defense , public safety, PCs,

Assignment

Aeronautical & maritime communications, Navigation, Broadcasting, Business, & Industrial communications, etc..

How?
by means of an effective & efficient management and monitoring system.

Structure of the ITU

Frequencies & Wavelength Bands

Propagation modes and usages for various frequency bands

Ban d
VLF

Frequency
3 - 30 kHz

Mode
wave guide

Range
several 1000 km several 1000 km a few 1000 km up to several 1000 km up to a few 100 km

BW
very limited

Interference Volume

Usage
Worldwide, long range radio navigation and strategic communications Long range radio navigation and strategic communications Medium range pt. to pt., broadcasting and maritime mobile Long and short range pt. to pt., global broadcasting, mobile. Short and medium pt. to pt., mobile, LAN, audio and video broadcasting, personal communications Short ,medium & long pt. to pt., mobile, LAN, audio and video broadcasting, personal communications, satellite communications Medium to short range pt.to
pt.,audio and video broadcasting, LAN, mobile/personal communications, satellite communications

wide spread wide spread wide spread wide spread confined

LF

30 - 300 kHz

ground wave, sky wave ground wave, sky wave sky wave

limited moderat e wide

MF

0.3 - 3 MHz

HF

3 - 30 MHz

VHF

30 - 300 MHz

space wave, troposphere scatter, diffraction space wave, tropospheric scatter, diffraction, line-of-sight line-of-sight

very wide

UHF

0.3 - 3 GHz

Generally less than 100 km

very wide

confined

SHF

3 - 30 GHz

30 km; several 1000 km for multihop and satellite 20 km; several 1000 km for multihop and satellite

very wide up to 1 GHz very wide up to 10 GHz

generally confined

EHF

30 - 300 GHz

line-of-sight

generally confined

Short range pt. to pt., microcellular, LAN and personal communications, satellite communications

Chap. 5 SMS Handbook (At VLF a wave guide mode between the ionosphere and the Earth allows propagation over) global distances.

170

160 140 120 100 80 60 40 C

20 B

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 A

75

60 REGION 2 40 30 20 0 20 30 40 REGION 3 170 60

REGION 1

170 75 60 40 30 20 0 20 30 40 60

Spectrum Allocation (Regions)

160 140 120 100 80 60 40

20

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

The shaded part represents the Tropical Zones as defined in Nos. S5.16 to S5.20 and S5.21.

170

REGION 3

International allocation (9-110 KHz)

International Allocation (47-75.2 MHz)

International Allocation (150-223 MHz)

International Allocation (248-250 GHz)

IT U Ra d ioRe g u la tio n s
ITU ITU ITU ITU

RR RR RR RR

Rights & obligations + applicable procedures Two mechanisms of sharing spectrum:

coordination approach planning approach

efficiency first come, first served for actual requirements

equitable access plan for future use

General Terms used in Radio Regulation Categories of Services & allocations

Primary and secondary services

Service the name of which are printed in normal characters (example: Mobile) are called secondary Services Additional remarks shall be printed in normal characters ( MOBILE except aeronautical mobile)

Service the name of which are printed in capitals (example: FIXED) are called Primary Service

Stations of a secondary service:

Shall not cause harmful interference to stations of primary services to which frequencies are already assigned or may be assigned at a later date; cannot claim protection from harmful interference from stations of a primary service to which frequencies are already assigned or may be assigned at a later date can claim protection from harmful interference from stations of the same or other secondary service(s) to which frequencies may be assigned at later date.

Some General Terms used in Radio Regulation

Administration,Any governmental department or service responsible for discharging the
obligations undertaken in the Constitution of the International Telecommunication Union, in the Convention of the International Telecommunication Union and in the Administrative Regulations.

Telecommunication,Any transmission, emission or reception of signs, signals, writings,

images and sounds or intelligence of any nature by wire, radio, optical or other electromagnetic systems.

Radio:A general term applied to the use of radio waves. Radio waves or hertzian waves:Electromagnetic waves of frequencies arbitrarily lower than
3000 GHz, propagated in space without artificial guide.

Radio-communication:Telecommunication by means of radio waves Radio-determination:The determination of the position, velocity and/or other characteristics
of an object, or the obtaining of information relating to these parameters, by means of the propagation properties of radio waves.

Radionavigation:Radiodetermination used for the purposes of navigation, including obstruction warning.

Radiolocation:Radiodetermination used for purposes other than those of radionavigation. Radio direction-finding:Radiodetermination using the reception of radio waves for the purpose of
determining the direction of a station or object.

Radio-communication service:A Broadcasting service:A

service as defined in this Section involving the transmission, emission and/or reception of radio waves for specific telecommunication purposes. radiocommunication service in which the transmissions are intended for direct reception by the general public. This service may include sound transmissions, television transmissions or other types of transmission

Specific terms related to frequency management

Allocation (of a frequency band):Entry in the Table of Frequency
Allocations of a given frequency band for the purpose of its use by one or more terrestrial or space radio-communication services or the radio astronomy service under specified conditions.

Allotment (of a radio frequency or radio frequency channel): Entry of a

designated frequency channel in an agreed plan, adopted by a competent conference, for use by one or more administrations for a terrestrial or space radio-communication service in one or more identified countries or geographical areas and under specified conditions.
In allotment planning, a specific channel is given to an administration to provide coverage over a defined area within its service area, called the allotment area. Transmitter sites and their characteristics are unknown at the planning stage and should be defined at the time of the conversion of the allotment into one or more assignments.

Assignment (of a radio frequency or radio frequency channel) :

Authorization given by an administration for a radio station to use a radio frequency or radio frequency channel under specified conditions.
In assignment planning, a specific channel is assigned to an individual transmitter site location with defined transmission characteristics (for example, radiated power, antenna height, etc.). At the completion of the assignment plan, the locations and characteristics of all transmitters are known and the transmitters can be brought into service without further coordination.

Broadcasting Planed Bands as an example of Assignment plan Band LF MF Frequency 148.5-283.5 kHz 526.5-1 606.5 kHz 525-1 605 kHz 1 605-1 705 kHz 5 950-26 100 kHz 47-68 MHz 87.5-100 MHz 87.5-108 MHz 162-230 MHz 470-862 MHz 470-960 MHz BC/BT BC BC BC BC BC BC and BT BT BC BT BT BT Region 1 1 and 3 2 2 1, 2 and 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 Plan GE75 GE75 RJ81 RJ88 Art. S12 ST61, GE89 ST61 GE84 ST61, GE89

HF VHF/UHF

National aspects of Radio Frequency Spectrum

Legislation, Policy and Regulations National Frequency allocation Table Frequency assignment and Licensing Importance of Frequency Management National Spectrum Management and Monitoring System Procedure of Radio Monitoring Station Management

Policy, Legislation & regulation

Policy:
Setting priorities to determine who will be authorized access to a

frequency band Establishing licensing criteria setting up appropriate procedures to ensure spectrum availability for public service providers such as public broadcasting, national defense, public safety business and industrial communications etc.. setting aside certain bands for future purposes/ as test beds for new technologies Policy related issues emerged by development and deployment of advanced wireless technologies
Market based strategies for spectrum allocation Auctions - The English auction, where the auctioneer increases the price until a single
bidder is left - The first price sealed bid auction - The 2nd price sealed bid auction, where the highest bidder wins but pays the 2nd highest amount bid - The Dutch auction, where the auctioneer announce a high price & reduce it until a bidder shouts mine - The simultaneous multiple round auction (FCC approach), this involves

Policy
Policy related issues emerged by development and deployment of advanced wireless technologies Tradable Spectrum rights (cont.)
- Change of ownership

- change of ownership & reconfiguration - change of ownership, reconfiguration & change of use - change of ownership & change of use

Implementing Spectrum Trading (shifting from traditional to trading approach) Constraints to Spectrum trading (interference, international, cross-border interference) License exempt spectrum
Open access spectrum, (a) low power transmissions where the interference is limited by strict power limits & regulatory equipment approval which allow co-existence with high power user, (b) Spectrum use in license exempt bands (2.4 & 5 GHz) Spectrum commons (the same as open access but access is limited for a group of users)

Technology-focused strategies Administrative incentive pricing Allowing of spectrum underlays. Provision of communication services at low power level (beneat
the noise floor). Regulatory definition of noise floor is required. UWB usage tested in USA in 2002.
Source: ITU-Handbook on SMS

Radiocommunication law
The nations Spectrum laws are as important as those that govern land and water

use; The Spectrum (Radio-communication) law should be clearly different from a law covering the area of genera telecommunication, Administrations should distinguish between The Spectrum law and the one covering general telecommunication. Should give recognition to the existence of the Radio Spectrum as a national resource and the need to govern it for the interest of all citizens; Should establish the right of national government to regulate radio communications use, authorization of use and enforcement of spectrum management rules; Should cover the public access to the spectrum management decision making process & Government responsiveness to the public input. The Radio-communication Laws should be a basic document establishing: Concepts, Authorities ITU- Spectrum monitoring Handbook Broad goals & objectives Responsibilities The right of citizens and the government to own and operate radio-communication
equipment;

Regulations and Procedures

Should server as basis for daily conduct of Radio communication use & enable are the spectrum users to understand the manner in which their operations

governed; Published regulations and procedures are primary tools of spectrum management; Lack of regulations & procedures discourage development of radio based communications services as well as increase investment risks The regulations and procedures should cover: Procedures for obtaining license and renewing a license; Applicable standards; Equipment authorization procedures; Channeling plan in various parts of spectrum; Operational requirements.

Frequency planning Planning definitions

Short term planning
Planning that considers issues needing resolution or systems to be implemented within from 3 to 5 years Planning that considers issues needing resolution or systems to be implemented within 5 to 10 years Planning involving the identification of a limited number of key issues, which require concentrated spectrum management attention for solutions which need more than 10 years to be implemented Planning involving spectrum use issues i.e., allocation, allotment, assignment, standards, etc. Planning involving spectrum management techniques, analysis methods, organization, resources, computer implementation, etc Planning of specific systems' characteristics and operations

Medium term planning

Long term strategic planning

Spectrum use planning

Spectrum management system planning Service or network planning

Source: ITU-Handbook on SMS

Factors that may influence Spectrum Planning Changes in demand as a result of changes in Policy and legal factors
National radio-communication law Regulatory requirements International frequency allocation (ITU) Regional frequency management bodies National frequency allocation procedure Frequency management procedures of neighboring administrations Standardization policy Telecommunications infrastructure Industrial issues User needs Security and public safety

daily and life-time working hours Public acceptance of wireless applications Electromagnetic pollution and radiofrequency interference Public dislike of large antenna structures and proliferation of sites Debris in space

Technical factors
User mobility, Basic technologies, Microelectronics, Signal processing Data processing in telecommunications Equipment components, Power supplies,
Batteries

Economic factors
Globalization, Overall economic development Structure of prices and tariffs for equipment and services Market needs and marketing issues Procedures and practices used by service providers Spectrum auctions or fees The economic impact of new services and technologies
Social

and ecological factors

Changes in demand as a result of changes in social structure

Source: ITU-Handbook on SMS

Communication media Coding (source and channel) and modulation techniques Channel access techniques and transmission modes Spread spectrum techniques Diversity techniques, e.g., time, frequency, space Antenna design or optimization Antenna characteristics, e.g., direction or adaptive
Reduction of side-lobe level of antenna pattern

Distance separation between Radionavigation & FM Stations BC stations frequency (MHz)

Erp of BC stations dBW 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 KW 300 100 30 10 3 1 0.300 0.100 0.030 125 75 40 25 20 20 20 20 20 210 120 65 40 2020 20 20 20 20 400 230 125 70 40 25 20 20 20 100 102 104 105 106 107 107.9

Distance (Km) 500 340 190 105 60 35 20 20 20 500 500 310 180 95 55 30 20 20 500 500 500 380 210 120 65 40 20 500 500 500 500 500 370 200 115 65

Frequency planning related matters Interference by Noise

Wanted field strength S
d

Minimum field strength S min Noise level S N

C/N Noise

Location of wanted TX

1. Criteria for coverage Wanted Field Str. > Minimum Field Str. N + S d > S C /N S min

Coverage area

Frequency planning related matters Interference by one transmitter

Nuisance field S n Wanted field strength S
d

Protection ratio Interfering field strength S i

C/N Noise

Coverage area with noise only

2. Criteria for coverage Wanted Field Str. > Nuisance Field Str.

Coverage area with one interfering Tx

+A Sd >Si Sn

Frequency planning related matters Interference by several Usable field transmitters strength S S Protection ratio
u d

Si 2

Si 1

C/N Noise Coverage area with noise only

3. Criteria for coverage Wanted Field Str. > Usable Field Str. M

Coverage area with several interfering Tx

Sd >

S
j= 1 Su

n j

Frequency planning related matters

Regular lattice for radio stations
developed in the Radio Broadcasting Institute in Hamburg (Germany). It was used at many international conferences on radio broadcasting (Stockholm, 1961; Geneva, 1963; RARC 1+; Geneva, 1984).

0 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0

Source: ITU-Handbook on SMS

The linear frequency planning method is based on the following theoretical assumptions: a) all transmitters are identical, their output power and antenna height being the same; b) antenna radiation patterns are isotropic in the horizontal plane; and c) propagation losses are not a function of direction or frequency.

Frequency planning related matters

General flowchart of sequential frequency-synthesis planning

Frequency planning related matters

coordination & notification of frequency assignment(s) Is the requested frequency Subject to a plan yes Mod to the Plan no

follow Art. S9/S11 procedures

Frequency planning related matters

Procedure for modification to the Broadcasting Plans

Admin requesting modification

BR

Coordinates if necessary

Part A

Part B

Part C

Needs assistance time period for Responding to the Publication part A Objection(s) Agreement(s)

Plan

Role of Radiocommunication Bureau (ITU-R)

Processing of frequency assignment notices, including orbital location of GSO for
recording in MIFR;

Processing of information received in application of the procedures of the RR (API,

coordination, etc.) Processing & coordination of seasonal HF Broadcasting schedules; Periodic compilation of frequency lists reflecting in the MIFR; Review & updating of the MIFR; Methodical study, on a long term basis, of Spectrum utilization with a view to ensuring maximum efficiency; Investigation of cases of harmful interference; Technical & training assistance in the field of radio spectrum utilization; Collection of the results of monitoring observation; Development of RoP including technical standards; Provision of technical & administrative support to RC, WRC, RA and SGs and Publication of revised RR & ITU-R recommendations and Handbooks on radio system characteristics and spectrum utilization.

National Frequency Allocation Table

Selection of regions or national plan Selection of frequency range Type of horizontal axis

List of footnotes Information of specific allocation, shown at mouse location

Footnote according to RR5

 Provides a foundation for an effective spectrum management process;

Provides a general plan for spectrum use and the basic structure to ensure efficient and Interference free utilization of the Spectrum for provision of different types of Radio communication Services Provides guidance to Manufacturers where to design & built the spectrum equipments Key elements for development of National Frequency Allocation Table

National Frequency Allocation Table

International frequency allocation for three regions frequency allocation in neighbor countries; availability of equipment; footnotes wherever is needed Options: restricting the band to one service;
restricting the band to compatible services; subdividing the band for specific services

Basic Structure of SMS

Source: ITU-R SG 1

Spectrum management system database organization for frequency assignment and licensing purposes
Cartografic Database Coordination
COORD. AGREEMENT 0,n Refers to 0,n

COORD. REQUEST SITE 1,1 0,n Horiz. Diagr. 0,1 Vert. Diagr. 0,1 Measures Ref. Antenna Name 1,1 0,n ANTENNA 1,1 APPROVAL 1,1 0,n 1,1 STATION 1,1 1,1 Coverage Ref. 0,n LINK 1,1 1,1 0,n 0,n FREQUENCY 0,n 1,1 0,n 1,1 COORD. STATUS 1,1 1,1

Calculation Information 1,1 EQUIPMENT 1,1 0,n Measurement Information 1,1

PROVIDERS INSTALLERS

0,n

Technical Data Base Type Approval

USER 1,n 1,1 1,n 1,n 1,1 LICENSE 1,1 1,1 0,n 0,n 1,1 ACCOUNT 1,1 NETWORK 1,1 1,1

0,n MONITORING STATION

Spectrum Monitoring
Frequencies plan 1,1

1,1

0,n RATES

BILL

0,n 1,1 1,n SERVICE 0,n 1,1

0,n Frequency Band

Licensing & Billing Legend

Main entity Secondary entity

Type

Entity links
1,n 1,n

Entity links cardinality Domain boundary

Source: ITU-Handbook on SMS

Frequency Assignment and Licensing

Licensing-assignment unit applies national legislation, regulations, policies and procedures governing radio-communications; controls over operation of stations and the use of frequencies by: Examination of license applications and related documents; Granting authorization to entities which may not require a license; Assigning call signs to individual stations; Issuing licenses and collecting fees, if appropriate; Renewing and canceling licenses as appropriate; Conducting examinations of operator competence and issuing operator certificates.

Frequency assignment & Licensing General procedure for the frequency assignment and licensing process
License request

Spectrum user

The request is not accepted for an ADM reason.

Registration of the application in the administrative database and initialisation of the workflow management Administrative study

Folder creation

Folder processing. Transmission to administrative and technical studies

EMC analysis
The frequency is not available because it is protected by ITU agreement.

Verification of international coordination requirements

The folder is transmitted to coordination study and ITU sending.

Notifications forms generation and registration in ITU database

License and invoice sending.

License and invoice emission

The folder is transmitted for license issuing and invoice generation. The relevant documents are provided to the spectrum user.

Source: ITU-Handbook on SMS

Frequency assignment

The folder is closed and archived. The licensing process is over.

Importance of National Spectrum Management (SMS)

Why a National Spectrum management System is so important?

t is essential in order:

To maximize the benefits of spectrum resource to the society;

To ensure efficient & effective spectrum usage, frequency sharing short & long terms frequency demands; To promote the Radio-based communication Services by means of an effective spectrum management system; To facilitate the radio users access to the spectrum , in particular:
To make available rapid, efficient, nationwide & worldwide communication services for personal and business use; To foster innovation in the development of infrastructure & provision of services; To serve the national security and defense; To safeguard life & property; To support crime prevention and law enforcement; To support national & International transportation systems; To foster conservation of natural resources; To provide for dissemination of education, general & public interest information and entertainment; To promote scientific research, development and exploration; and To stimulate social and economic progress.

Organizational structure & process Of SMS

Managing spectrum by two or more

Managing Spectrum by a government body

Advantages
Simplifies decision process; treats all users in an equal manner; Reduces the tendency to Segregate bands & users inefficiently; promotes the spectrum sharing usage; simplifies coordination process with other countries; stores all operational stations information in a databank for future purposes & interference

disadvantages

Advantages

disadvantages
Decreases the
overall spectrum use & efficiency; complicates & makes more difficult the coordination process; Makes barrier for innovation since each authority seeks to protect its own Bands; Frequency sharing if not possible would be very difficult; who provides the

A very large
spectrum management organization may become cumbersome & inefficient; Licensing process may prolongs due to the workload.

Availability of
more professional staff & technical expertise for planning & operational purposes; Simplifies licensing process for their specific usages.

Basic Functions of Spectrum Management

Spectrum management policy and planning/allocation of spectrum; Frequency assignment and licensing; Standards, specifications, and equipment authorization; Spectrum control (enforcement and monitoring); International cooperation; liaison and consultation; Spectrum engineering support; Computer systems support, from record keeping to all tasks; Administrative and legal support;

Main Functions of an automated SMS

Desktop Menus of SMS4DC

Database structure of SMS4DC

Station Database Spreadsheet of SMS4DC

Link to assign an antenna from antenna database to a station Link to draw transmitter antenna pattern

Import/e xport

Delete a record

Sorting in ascending or descending order respect to selected field Add a record

AFG Database
MAIN MENU

Afghanistan Application Form

Applicant Form (front page) ( English)

AFG data entry Form

Data entry Form (English)

AFG License Form)

Licensing Form (English)

AFG assigned Frequencies

Assigned frequencies in different services in each band

Guidance on Power calculation

Overview of the training course

Basic Technical Parameters Propagation EMC (Electromagnetic Compatibility Analysis) Database and GIS (Geographic Information System) Transceiver Architectures Oscillators Modulations and modulators; Matching unites, transformation lines and distribution systems; Detectors (demodulator) Antennas Mixer Fundamental of Radio Spectrum Monitoring Land requirements for a fixed monitoring station

Conversion of Units
Calculator for converting of units from one type to another and vice versa

Propagation Model Calibration

HATA model parameter justification

ITU-R P.1546 model parameter justification

Receiving point calculation using ITU-R P.1546

Interactive graphical interface to calculate variables given in edit box Loss components

Fresnel zone

Path profile

Profile Generation Along Line

Antenna heights, k-factor, Path profile Movable marker Fresnel zone Line of Sight Earth curvature Marker distance , coordinate and height on profile

Profile Generation Along Polygon

Path profile

Movable marker

Polygon vertexes

Marker distance , coordinate and height on profile

Line Calculation using ITU-R P.1546

Movable marker Field strength curve

Path profile

Coordinate of marker position

Field strength value at marker position

Site Search within a Selected Area

Stations found within selected area Area selection (dashed line)

DEM as background (changeable)

Visibility Check in a Profile

Visible points from left

Movable marker

Invisible points from left Earth curvature Path profile Marker distance , coordinate and height on profile

Effective Height Calculation

Table of effective height Effective height

Azimuth

Legend of terrain height

Field Strength Contour

Microwave Link Design Interactive Dialog, ITU-R P.530

Different tabs Graphical adjustable antenna height Earth curvature Different morpho types

Fresnel zone and LOS Path profile Reflections

Path specification Site dependent calculation summary

Antenna Pattern Dialog

Graphically editable Horizontal pattern Graphically editable Vertical pattern

3D radiation pattern

Fill mode

Mesh mode

Antenna Specification

Monitoring

R 2 3

f0 2 f0 3 f0 4 f0

0 5 15 2 5 3 5 4

Monitoring Station
Field-strength and signal quality measurement Network planning Determination of coverage area Broadcasting cellular Broadcasting cellular

Direction-finding and locating

Search for unknown transmitters Identification Search for spurious radiation Search for, and measurement of spurious radiation Bandwidth Frequency measurements Identification and location Tests Analysis and search for the cause Advice Occupancy Long-term measurements for propagation study project

Monitoring station

Monitoring of radio station characteristics

Search for interferencefaulty emission

Data base

Block Diagram of the Fixed monitoring Station

VLF-HF antenna distribution matrix

Radio-telecom. service

V/UHF antenna distribution matrix

VLF-HF receiver ID equipment

Freq.-spectrum Spectrum VHF/ UHF TV - Test VLF-UHF occupancy Analyzer receiver receiver test receiver Frequency standard Modulation analyzer Recording for monitoring and I.D. purpose TV monitor Video analyzer

DF system

Data processor
2 Modem

Centralized station

Rs 232

XYT recorder

Video tape oscilloscope recorder

2 Modem

Mobile Monitoring System

Active dipole Antenna rotator Loop antenna Radio telephone Rotator controller DC interface Relays matrix Test receive 9kHz 30 MHz RF switch Test receive 20 1350 MHz Spectrum monitor Controller with floppy disk TTL CNTL Generatiry set Navigation and positioning system Batteries RF switch

Power supply

TV receiver radio tuner Video recorder Amplifier Data recording equipment Air conditioning

Printer Keyboard Mast controller

Example of a block diagram of an automated, integrated HF/VHF/UHF monitoring station

Typical integrated SM& Monitoring System

SINPO & SINPFEMO

VLF and LF antennas

Top loading resistor 8 shaped pattern Radial conductor Vertical conductor

Coaxial cable

Matching transformer

Rotatable loop antenna Vertical omni top-loaded antenna

Omni-directional MF and HF antennas

A C B C

26 76 m

75 m

13 37 m

23 m

Inverted cone antenna, 2- 32 MHz Omni-directional 4 dBi Gain

Conical mono-pole antenna two vertically opposing cones omni-directional 4- 5 dBi Gain

Directional MF and HF antennas

Receiver
l = 1.5 - 2

ZL

IL

Zl 3 m

Beverage antenna (MF), Phase difference 180 degree 72 81m Transmission line, 69 114 m

sloping V-type antenna,

Rhombic antenna (two V),

HF Direction Finder antennas

24 elevated element in each circle, inner circle: frequency range: 8 30 MHz, 2.1 m above ground, 4 m height 7 dBv formed beam gain,
elements 1 2 3 4
splitter

outer circle: frequency range: 1 10 MHz, 4 m above ground, 8 m height

beams 1 Ro = 150 m 2 3 Ri = 50 m

24

24

Monopole elements

Directional beam forming

Method of Frequency Measurement

A measuring error less than one-tenth of the Frequency tolerance, Beat Frequency method,

Antenna

fx

Mixer Envelope detector

~ ~
Strength meter

Beat Frequency Oscillator (BFO) Audio frequency f Loudspeaker

11 0.8 0.8

Beat generator

f x f
Variable Oscillator

~ ~

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

00

-0.2 -0.2

-0.4 -0.4

-0.6 -0.6

Frequency counter

-0.8 -0.8

-1 -1 00

0.5 0.5

11

1.5 1.5

22

2.5 2.5

33

3.5 3.5

44

f =1 Hz, duration =2 sec

 Adjusting for fixing Lissajous figure,

Frequency Measurement: measuring offset frequency

Antenna

fx f x f
Variable Oscillator

Mixer Envelope detector

Audio frequency f Oscilloscope

~ ~

Strength meter Fixed f

o

Frequency counter

Antenna

Frequency Measurement: Direct Lissajous method

fx

~ ~

Mixer

f0

Variable Oscillator

~ ~

~ ~
IF + f

Oscilloscope

Synthesizer

Nominal IF control Display

~ ~

control

Frequency Measurement: pulsed signals (Radar)

1 1

0.9 0.9

0.8 0.8

0.7 0.7

0.6 0.6

0.5 0.5

0.4 0.4

0.3 0.3

0.2 0.2

1 T

0.1 0.1

0 0 -15 -15

-10 -10

1 2 t0 t0
-5 -5

0 0

t0

1 2 t0 + t0 +
5 5

10 10

15 15

Spectrum of a sequence of pulses on Spectrum Analyzer