Resistivity Logging

Introduction
The resistivity of a formation is a key parameter in determining hydrocarbon saturation. Electricity can pass through a formation only because of the conductive water it contains. With a few rare exceptions, such as metallic sulfide and graphite, dry rock is a good electrical insulator. Moreover, perfectly dry rocks are very seldom encountered. Therefore, subsurface formations have finite, measurable resistivities because of the water in their pores or absorbed in their interstitial clay.

 The resistivity of a formation depends on:

Resistivity of the formation water. Amount of water present. Pore structure geometry.

The resistivity of a substance is the resistance measured between opposite faces of a unit cube of that substance at a specified temperature. The meter is the unit of length and the ohm is the unit of electrical resistance.

 Resistivity is a basic measurement of a reservoirs fluid saturation and is a function of porosity, type of fluid, amount of fluid and type of rock. Formation resistivities are usually from 0.2 to 1000 ohm-m. Resistivities higher than 1000 ohm-m are uncommon in permeable formations but are observed in impervious, very low porosity (e.g., evaporites) formations. Formation resistivities are measured by either sending current into the formation and measuring the ease of the electrical flow through it or by inducing an electric current into the formation and measuring how large it is.

Factors Affecting Resistivity

Resisitivities are dependent on:
Presence of Formation water / Hydrocarbons Salinity of Formation water Temperature of Formation water Volume of water-saturated pore space Geometry of the pore space Morphology and species of clay minerals

CONVENTIONAL ELECTRICAL LOGS

During the fist quarter-century of well logging, the only resistiviry logs available were the conventional electrical surveys. Thousands of them were run each year in holes drilled all over the world. Since then, more sophisticated resistivity logging methods have been developed to measure the resistivity of the flushed zone, Rxo, and the true resistivity of the uninvaded virgin zone, Rt. The conventional electrical survey (ES) usually consisted of an SP, 16-in. normal, 64-in. normal, and 18-ft 8-in. lateral devices.

Principle
Currents were passed through the formation by means of current electrodes, and voltages were measured between measure electrodes. These measured voltages provided the resistivity determinations for each device. In a homogeneous, isotropic formation of infinite extent, the equipotential surfaces surrounding a single current-emitting electrode (A) are spheres. The voltage between an electrode (M) situated on one of these spheres and one at infinity is proportional to the resistivity of the homogeneous formation, and the measured voltage can be scaled in resistivity units.

Basic Definitions and Ohms Law

Ohms Law states that the current flowing from point A to point B in a conductor I is proportional to the difference in electrical potential E between point A and point B. The constant of proportionality is called the electrical conductance c. Current is measured in amperes (A), potential difference in volts (V), and conductance in siemens (S) or mho.

 While electrical resistance r, which is the inverse of conductance is:

Resistance is measured in ohms (). Hence,

 Thus, if we take a cylindrical rock sample with two flat faces A and B, and set a potential difference E =EA-EB between its end faces, a current I will flow through the rock from face A to face B. If we measure the current and the potential difference, we can calculate the resistance of the rock sample.

 If the resistance is high, a given potential difference E will only give a small current I. If the resistance is low, a given potential difference E will give a high current I.

The value of resistance is a property of the material which describes how much the material resists the passage of a current for a given applied potential difference.

 If the size of our rock sample changes.

If the length of the sample is doubled, one can see that the resistance of the sample to the passage of a current should also double. If the area perpendicular to the current flow doubles (the area of the end face in this example), there is twice the material for the current to pass through, the resistance of the sample to the passage of the current should therefore fall to a half of what is was before.

So the resistance (and therefore conductance) depend upon the size of the sample.

 The resistance per unit length and area is called the resistivity R, and can be expressed as

where:
R = the resistivity of the sample (m or ohm.m) E = the potential difference across the sample (volts, V) I = the current flowing through the sample (amperes, A) A = the cross-sectional area of the sample perpendicular to the current flow (m2) L = the length of the sample (m).

 Or
R = rA/L, The units of resistivity are ohm-meters squared per meter, or simply ohm-meters (ohm-m). Note that a conductivity C can also be defined as the reciprocal of the resistivity R, and therefore

 In petrophysical logging of electrical rock properties there are two main types of tool. One type measures resistivity directly, and the result is given in ohm.m (.m). The other type measures conductivity directly, and the result is given in either siemens per metre (S/m), or more often to avoid decimal fractions conductivity is usually expressed in millisiemens per metre (mS/m) or milli-mhos per meter (mmho/m), where 1000 mmho/m = 1 mho/m.

 The two measurements are, of course, measuring the same property of the rock, and can be inter-converted using the following equation.

Resistivity of Rocks
Reservoir rocks contain the following constituents

 All have a high electrical resistivity (electrical insulators) except the formation water and water-based mud filtrate, which are good electrical conductors and have a low electrical resistivity. The resistivity of the reservoir rocks therefore depends only upon the water or water based mud filtrate occupying its pore space.

Uninvaded Formations
For uninvaded formations, the measured bulk resistivity of the rock depends only upon the amount of the aqueous formation fluids present in the rock, and the resistivity of those aqueous fluids. Since the amount of formation fluids depends both on porosity and water saturation Sw, we can say that the resistivity of the formation Rt depends upon porosity , water saturation Sw, and the resistivity of the formation water Rw. This resistivity is called the true resistivity of the formation. It is the resistivity of the formation in the uninvaded zone, where the rock contains some saturation of oil So, gas Sg, and water Sw, and where So+Sg+Sw=1.

 The aim is to use knowledge of the resistivity of the formation, together with independent knowledge of the porosity and resistivity of the formation waters, to calculate Sw, and hence enable ourselves to calculate the STOOIP. The uninvaded zone of formations is commonly only measured directly by the most deeply penetrating electrical logging tools. The shallower investigating tools measure the invaded zone. Hence, if one wants a resistivity reading for use in STOOIP calculations, one should always chose the deepest penetrating electrical tool of those that have been run.

Invaded Zones
In most cases there is an invaded zone, where the formation fluids have been disturbed by the drilling fluid. The resistivity of the formation in this zone depends upon the resistivity of the mud filtrate Rmf, the resistivity of any remaining formation water Rw, the saturation of the mud filtrate SXO, the saturation of the remaining formation water Sw (if any), and the porosity of the rock .

Log Presentation
A problem common to all resistivity and conductivity devices is providing a scale that can be read accurately over the full range of response. Most laterologs were recorded on linear scales. Because of the very large range of resistivities often encountered, the required scale was relatively insensitive. Very low readings, whether resistivity or conductivity, were virtually unreadable. Backup curves of increased sensitivity were introduced, but they were difficult to read and cluttered the log in formations of high contrast.

 For a while, the hybrid scale, first used on the LL3 tool, was employed. It presented linear resistivity over the first half of the grid track (log), and linear conductivity over the last half. Thus, one galvanometer could record all resistivities from zero to infinity. Although some what awkward to use because of the odd scale divisions, the hybrid scale did provide acceptable sensitivity in both lowresistivity and low-conductivity formations.

 Today, the logarithmic scale is the most acceptable scale for recording resistivity curves. Its standard form is a split four-cycle grid covering the range from 0.2 to 2000. Even this range is sometimes not sufficient for the DLL-Rxo measurements; when needed, a backup trace is used to cover the range from 2000 to 40,000 ohm-m.

Depth of Resistivity Log Investigation

Tools Measuring the Uninvaded Zone (Rt)

These tools (deep induction and deep laterolog) essentially measure Rt, and the log value is normally quite close to true Rt, providing the tool is used in the correct environment. To obtain a more precise value for Rt, certain corrections must be applied to the raw values.

Tools Measuring the Invaded zone (Ri)

The actual quantitative value of these readings is not as important as how these readings relate to Rt and Rxo. By comparing them, we can obtain:
Corrected Rt values Depth of invasion of the mud filtrate An idea of the formation's permeability An estimate of movable oil

Tools Measuring the Flushed Zone (Rxo)

Four different Rxo tools are available, the ML, MLL, PL and MSFL. They are intended for different conditions of salinity, mud cake thickness and diameters of invasion.

Resistivity Devices
In the normal device, a current of constant intensity is passed between two electrodes, A and B. The resultant potential difference is measured between two other electrodes, M and N. Electrodes A and M are on the sonde. B and N are, theoretically, located an infinite distance away. The distance AM is called the spacing (16-in. spacing for the short normal, 64-in. spacing for the long normal), and the point of inscription for the measurement is at 0. midway between A and M.

Normal device-basic arrangement.

Lateral device-basic arrangement

 In the basic lateral device, a constant current is passed between A and B, and the potential difference between M and N is measured. Thus, the voltage measured is proportional to the potential gradient between M-and N. The point of inscription is at O, midway between M and N. The spacing AO is 18 ft 8 in.

 Generally, the longer the spacing, the deeper the device investigates into the formation. Thus, of the ES resistivity logs, the 18-ft 8-in. lateral has the deepest investigation and the 16 in. normal the shallowest. In practice, however, the apparent resistivity, Ra, recorded by each device is affected by the resistivities and geometrical dimensions of all media around the device (borehole, invaded and uncontaminated zones, and adjacent beds).

Conventional Resistivity Logs

Normal Logs The Short Normal (SN) measures the resistivity of the invaded zone (Ri). This curve has the ability to detect invasion by comparing the separation between the deep induction and the short normal. Invasion will indicate permeability. The SN curve is recorded in Track #2.

 Electrical spacing of the electrode is sixteen inches (short normal) or sixty four inches (long normal). Normal logs provide reliable resistivity values for beds greater than four feet in thickness. The curve will be symmetrical around center of bed. Using this parameter, bed boundaries will be at the inflection points on the curve.

 There are two electrodes in the sonde, a current electrode and a pick-up electrode, with two other electrodes located an infinite distance away (one is the cable armor, the other one is on the surface). A current of constant intensity is passed between two electrodes, one in the sonde and the one on the cable. The resultant potential difference is measured between the second electrode in the sonde and the one on the surface.

 There are several factors affecting normal log measurements:

The resistivity of the borehole (Rm, Rmc, Rmf). The depth of invasion (di). Formation thickness - the greater the spacing of electrodes, the thicker the formation must be to get accurate readings. Resistivity of surrounding beds - when there is a high resistivity contrast, distortion of the curve results.

Lateral Logs
The lateral curve is produced by three effective electrodes (one current and two pick-up) in the sonde. A constant current is passed between two electrodes, one on surface, and one in the sonde. The potential difference between the two electrodes, located on two concentric spherical equipotential surfaces, centered around the current electrode, is measured. The voltage measured is proportional to the potential gradient between the two pick-up electrodes. Point of measurement is halfway between pick-up electrodes (18 feet, 8 inches), making the radius of investigation approximately equal to the electrode spacing.

 Lateral curves are asymmetrical, and only apparent resistivity (Ra) is measured. The resistivity values must be corrected for Rt. For thick beds, the lateral curve will define a bed boundary, depending on type of electrode arrangement. Several factors affecting lateral measurements are:
Borehole influences (Rm, Rmc, Rmf) are relatively small. Measurements in thin beds are difficult, if not impossible.

Principle of the Laterolog

Conventional electrical logging devices need a conductive mud in the borehole to operate properly. However, when the resistivity contrast Rt/Rm is too high the response of these devices weaken because the measure current gets partially or totally shorted out by the mud column. We are concerned with the situation where resistivity measurements must be made in relatively high resistivity formations using salty muds.

 Another problem occurs when the formation consists predominantly of resistive thin beds because current escapes to adjacent beds and this produces unwanted signals at the detectors which obscure the resistivity of the bed of interest. To overcome these limitations, focused devices were developed in which the measure current is contained between two almost horizontal and parallel surfaces out to a certain distance from the sonde.

 Use is made of auxiliary electrodes, above and below the measurement electrodes, that supply currents of the same polarity and are kept at the same potential of the main electrode to ensure that no current will flow between them inside the mud column. Auxiliary electrodes are called guard or bucking electrodes.

Laterolog Tool
Arrangement of electrodes to cause a current to flow horizontally into the formation. Laterolog response of a porous and permeable formation depends upon several factors. Invasion causes different zones of resistivities. So the total resistance measured is the sum of the resistivities of each zone. The region of formation that has the highest resistance, has the greatest influence.

 The logging current, Io, can be visualized as a sheet of current probing laterally into the formation. The depth of penetration is related to the length of guarding system. There are basically three types of electrode system.
3 elongate electrodes system (LL3) 7 or 8 (small) electrode system (LL7 or LL8) Combination (small and elongate) electrode system (DLL)

LL3
LL3 tool has two arrangements of elecetrodes.
Single electrode 3 eclectrodes

Single electrode Entire electrode at same potential. All current lines leave in a direction perpendicular to the electrode face. No spherical distribution of current until at a great distance. Current near the centre of electrode flows in a nearly horizontal direction for a considerable distance.

3 electrodes same electrode has been divided into three parts separating the small central section. All three pieces are connected to power supply at same potential. The current distribution remains unchanged. Only difference is that the current going to the centre is only measured. Since this current is directed into the formation in a horizontal beam, so this will give the resisitvity of the formation against the centre. The function of the upper and lower guard electrodes is to control the current in a horizontal sheet, which is flowing from the central measuring electrode.

 If this divided electrode arrangement is placed in a medium such that the resistivity opposite the centre section is much higher than the resistivity opposite the two guard sections, the relative amount of current going into the guard will increase proportionately, to maintain total Io unchanged. The direction of current flow will remain unchanged. Therefore as long as the thickness of the resistive streak is greater than the length of the centre section, the measurement of the resistivity will be very nearly correct. The presence of a mud column around the electrode makes an insignificant difference in its response, except in cases of extremely large holes such as result from caving. The current flowing to the central electrode and the potential of the electrode are measured, and from these the resistivity of the formation is estimated.

LL7
This laterolog system is comprised of several small electrodes. The central electrode Ao is symmetrically positioned between three pairs of electrodes, M1 & M2, M1 & M2 and A1 - A2. Each electrode pair is maintained at same potential. A constant current of known intensity is applied to the centre electrode Ao. An auxiliary current of the same polarity sent through Ao is applied to electrodes A1A2.

 The intensity of the current applied to electrodes A1 and A2 is automatically and continuously regulated to maintain the potential difference between the two pairs of electrodes, M and M, essentially at zero. When this condition is maintained, the potential of all A and M electrodes is identical. The current emanating from the central electrode Ao is prevented from flowing upward and downward in the borehole past the electrodes M1,M2 and M1 and M2, by the current from A1A2, and is therefore forced to flow laterally.

 This action will produce a sheet of current whose thickness is approximately equal to the distance separating the mid points of electrodes M1, M1 and M2,M2. This sheet of current that emanates from Ao is bounded by two surfaces, and for some radial distance from the borehole is reasonably close to two parallel planes perpendicular to the axis of the instrument and passing through the mid points of M1, M1 and M2,M2.

Dual Laterolog DLL

The DLL consists of two Laterologs, a deep and shallow investigating device, recorded simultaneously. Deep Laterolog LLd The LLd is the deepest investigating laterolog. This tool is needed to extend the range of formation conditions in which reliable determintaons of Rt are possible. At the same time it is necessary to obtain good vertical resolution, for which very long guard electrodes are needed (28 feet measured between ends of the guard electrodes).

 The same electrode array is used for deep laterolog and shallow laterolog, but the current flows are different. In the LLd (deep) mode, the surveying current Io , that flows from the center electrode, A0, is focused by bucket currents from electrodes A2 and A2' supported by A1 and A1'. The four "A" electrodes are all connected in this mode. The total current returns to the surface fish (electrode). This arrangement provides strong focusing deep into the formation. Current and voltage are used to compute resistvity.

Shallow Laterolog (LLs) The shallow Laterolog (LLs) has the same vertical resolution as the deep Laterolog (2 feet), but responds more strongly to the region affected by invasion. In the LLs (shallow) mode the bucking currents flow from A1 to A2 and A1 to A2, reducing the depth of investigation. #the same electrodes are used for the shallow device although in a different way. The total constant current it is generated downhole and applied directly to bucking and measure electrodes. It is split into two components: Ib going to A1 and Io going to Ao; both currents return to A2 producing a shallow Io beam The electrodes are switched several times per second from one to the other configuration, and the two resistivity traces are produced simultaneously.

Spherically Focused Log

The SFL device measures the conductivity of the formation near the borehole and provides the relatively shallow investigation required to evaluate the effects of invasion on deeper resistivity measurements. It is the short-spacing device now used on the DIL-SFL tool-developed to replace the 16-in. normal and LL8 devices. The SFL device is composed of two separate, and more or less independent, current systems. The bucking current system serves to plug the borehole and establish the equipotential spheres. The I, survey current system causes an independent survey current to flow through the volume of investigation; the intensity of this current is proportional to formation conductivity.

 The SFL device consists of current-emitting electrodes, current-return electrodes, and measure electrodes. Two equipotential spheres about the tools current source are established. The first sphere is about 9 in. away from the survey current electrode; the other is about 50 in. away. A constant potential of 2.5 mV is maintained between these two spherical surfaces. Since the volume of formation between these two surfaces is constant (electrode spacing is fixed) and the voltage drop is constant (2.5 mV), the conductivity of this volume of formation can be determined by measuring the current flow.

INDUCTION LOGGING
The induction logging tool was originally developed to measure formation resistivity in boreholes containing oil-base muds and in air-drilled boreholes. Electrode devices did not work in these nonconductive muds. Experience soon demonstrated that the induction log had many advantages over the conventional ES log when used for logging wells drilled with water-base muds. Designed for deep investigation, induction logs can be focused in order to minimize the influences of the borehole, the surrounding formations, and the invaded zone

Principle
Todays induction tools have many transmitter and receiver coils. However, the principle can be understood by considering a sonde with only one transmitter coil and one receiver coil. A high-frequency alternating current of constant intensity is sent through a transmitter coil. The alternating magnetic field created induces currents in the formation surrounding the borehole. These currents flow in circular ground loops coaxial with the transmitter coil and create, in turn, a magnetic field that induces a voltage in the receiver coil.

 Because the alternating current in the transmitter coil is of constant frequency and amplitude, the ground loop currents are directly proportional to the formation conductivity. The voltage induced in the receiver coil is proportional to the ground loop currents and, therefore, to the conductivity of the formation. There is also a direct coupling between the transmitter and receiver coils. The signal originating from this coupling is eliminated by using bucking coils. The induction tool works best when the borehole fluid is an insulator-even air or gas. The tool also works well when the borehole contains conductive mud unless the mud is too salty, the formations are too resistive, or the borehole diameter is too large.

Equipment
The induction tool has been the basic resistivity tool used in logging low- to medium-resistivity formations drilled with fresh water or oil. The 6FF40 induction-electrical survey (IES) tool included a six-coil focused induction device of 40in. nominal spacing (hence, the nomenclature, 6FF40), a 16-i% normal, and an SP electrode. The DIL-LL8 system used a deep-reading induction device (the ID, which was similar to the 6FF40), a medium induction device (the IM), an LL8 device (which replaces the 16-in. normal), and an SP electrode.

 The induction-SFL (ISF) tool incorporated a deep induction device similar to the 6FF40, the SFL device, and an SP electrode. The DIL-SFL tool is similar to the DIL-LL8 tool except that the SFL has replaced the LL8 as the shallow-investigation device. The SFL measurement is less influenced by the borehole than is the LL8 measurement.

Log Presentation and Scales

The induction conductivity curve is sometimes recorded over both Tracks 2 and 3. The linear scale is in millimhos per meter (mmho/m), increasing to the left. The DIL-LL8 log introduced the logarithmic grid; the standard presentation.

Comparing Laterologs and Induction Logs

Induction logs provide conductivity (that can be converted to resistivity). Laterologs provide resistivity (that can be converted to conductivity). Induction logs work best in wells with low conductivity fluids. Laterologs work best in wells with low resistivity fluids. Both logs provide a range of depths of penetrations and vertical resolutions.

MICRORESISTMTY DEVICES
Microresistivity devices are used to measure the resistivity of the flushed zone, Rxo and to delineate permeable beds by detecting the presence of mudcake. Measurements of Rxo are important for several reasons. When invasion is moderate to deep, a knowledge of Rxo allows the dxeep resistivity measurement to be corrected to true formation resistivity. Also, some methods for computing saturation require the Rxo/Rt, ratio.

 To measure Rxo the tool must have a very shallow depth of investigation because the flushed zone may extend only a few inches beyond the borehole wall. Since the reading should not be affected by the borehole, a sidewall-pad tool is used. The pad, carrying short-spaced electrode devices, is pressed against the formation and reduces the short circuiting effect of the mud. Currents from the electrodes on the pad must pass through the mudcake to reach the flushed zone. Microresistivity logs are scaled in resistivity units.

Microlog
The microlog (ML) is a rubber pad with three button electrodes placed in a line with a 1 inch spacing . A known current is emitted from electrode A, and the potential differences between electrodes M1 and M2 and between M2 and a surface electrode are measured. The two resulting curves are called the 2 normal curve (ML) and the 1 inverse curve (MIV). The radius of investigation is smaller for the second of these two curves, and hence is more affected by mudcake. The difference between the two curves is an indicator of mudcake, and hence bed boundaries. The tool is pad mounted, and the distance across the pads is also recorded, giving an additional caliper measurement (the micro-caliper log).

The Microlaterolog
The microlaterolog (MLL) is the micro-scale version of the laterolog, and hence incorporates a current focusing system. The tool is pad mounted, and has a central button electrode that emits a known measurement current surrounded coaxially by two ring shaped monitoring electrodes, and a ring-shaped guard electrode that produces a bucking current as in the DLL. The spacing between electrodes is about 1 inch. The tool operates in the same way as the LL7. The focused current beam that is produced from the central electrode has a diameter of about 1 inches and penetrates directly into the formation. The influence of mudcake is negligible for mudcakes less than 3/8 thick, and in these conditions RXO can be measured. The depth of investigation of the MLL is about 4 inches.

The Proximity Log

The proximity log (PL) was developed from the MLL to overcome problems with mudcakes over 3/8 thick, and is used to measure RXO. The device is similar, except that it is larger than the MLL and the functions of the central electrode and the first monitoring ring electrode are combined into a central button electrode. The tool operates in a similar fashion to the LL3. It has a depth of penetration of 1 ft., and is not affected by mudcake. It may, however, be affected by Rt when the invasion depth is small.

The Micro Spherically Focussed Log

The micro spherically focussed log (MSFL) is commonly run with the DLL on one of its stabilizing pads for the purpose of measuring RXO. It is based on the premise that the best resistivity data is obtained when the current flow is spherical around the current emitting electrode (isotropic conditions). The tool consists of coaxial oblong electrodes around a central current emitting button electrode. The current beam emitted by this device is initially very narrow (1), but rapidly diverges. It has a depth of penetration of about 4 (similar to the MLL). The initial narrowness of the current beam means that its sensitivity to mudcake is somewhere between the MLL and the PL, and is not significantly affected by mudcake less than thick.

Investigation Depth

Uses
Recognition of Hydrocarbon Zones Calculation of Water Saturation Facies Recognition Correlation Lithology Recognition