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The last half of the 1800s can be called the Age of Nationalism. By harnessing national feeling, European leaders fought ruthlessly to create strong, unified nations. Germany and Italy unified under nationalism, the Austrians and Ottomans fought to keep their empires in tact, and Russians started to challenge the power of the Czar (Tsar). Under Otto von Bismarck, Germany emerged as Europes most powerful empire but at a considerable cost. Where once the world saw Germany as a center for the Northern Renaissance, it was now viewed as conquerors and destroyers. Neither loved nor respected, only feared. All the while Western Democracies formed and grew in Britain, France, and the United States. A series of political reforms during the 1800s and early 1900s transformed Great Britain from a monarchy and aristocracy into a democracy, Manifest Destiny saw the United States expand from coast to coast (and beyond), and under the Napoleonic Code France emerged as the largest democratic country in Europe.
Germany Strengthens
In the aftermath of unification Germany emerged as the industrial giant of the European continent; its shipping was second only to Britain.
Germany had many advantages, its iron and coal deposits, along with a population surge (from 41 million in 1871 to 67 million in 1914) served to propel Germany forward. The Iron Chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, sought to keep France isolated and weak, while building strong links with Austria and Russia, as well as erase local loyalties within by attacking the Catholic Church and the Socialists. His moves backfired, forcing him to make peace with the church and woo the workers of Germany. Because of this Germany became the model of social reform for other European countries. Although workers benefited from Bismarcks plans, they did not abandon socialism; the socialist party continued to grow and held the most seats in the Reichstag (Germanys parliament) by 1912. In 1888, William II took aver from his father, forced the resignation of Bismarck, and expanded the German military and navy, while building an overseas empire.
Unifying Italy
Although the people of the Italian peninsula spoke the same language, they had not experienced political unity since the Roman times. By the early 1800s Italian patriots were determined to build a new, united Italy. Under the Congress of Vienna, Austria controlled northern Italy, the Hapsburg monarchs ruled various other Italian states, and the French Bourbons were put in charge of Naples and Cicily. Between 1820 and 1848 nationalist revolts exploded across the region each time Austria sent troops to crush the rebels. Under the shrewd leadership of Count Camillo Cavour - appointed prime minister in 1852, and Giuseppe Garibaldi a long time nationalist, Italy was united in 1861 with Victor Emmanuel II its king. Later wars would add Rome and Venitia. Though united, strong regional divisions between the north and south, as well as disputes with the Catholic Church served to impede growth. Growth did come with industrialization in northern Italy by 1900, which saw a population explosion and emigration to the Americas.
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During the early and mid 1800s, Parliament instituted reforms in the areas of
protective tariffs (repealing the Corn Laws), slavery (banning it in all British colonies), and criminal punishments (reducing the number of capital offenses). Victories for the Working Class In the 1800s and early 1900s, Parliament passed laws aimed at improving social conditions. Such laws limited the workday of women and children, regulated workplace safety, improved workers housing, and established old-age pensions and unemployment insurance. A Struggle to Win Votes for Women
Parliament finally granted suffrage to women over 30 in 1918. When peaceful protests saw no results, radical suffragists had
made their cause more apparent by destroying property. Instability in Ireland
Irish nationalists campaigned for freedom from Britain and made gains in the 1829 Catholic Emancipation Act and the home
rule bill, which passed in 1914. The southern counties of Ireland gained independence in 1921.
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The Dreyfus Affair led to a campaign to reduce the power of the Roman Catholic Church, which had supported the condemnation
of Dreyfus, and led also to a lack of support for womens suffrage, for fear that women would vote for Church causes. 1 of 7
Islands.
Expanding Democracy The abolition movement and the womens rights movement both intensified in the mid 19th century. The womens rights movement grew stronger out of frustration with the inability of women to have a voice against slavery. The Civil War and Its Aftermath Economic differences and the issue of slavery separated the North and the South and led to the Civil War. Even after African Americans were freed, segregation still restricted their opportunities in the South. Economic Growth and Social Reform After the Civil War, the U.S. economy grew and giant monopolies came to dominate industry. Workerslargely left out of the new prosperityorganized labor unions, and farmers also came together to defend their interests. 1 of 6
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