Design of Photovoltaic

Systems

A . K. Mukerjee
Chief Scientific Officer (Retired)
Centre for Energy Studies
Indian Institute of Technology,
Delhi
New Delhi – 110016.
A Typical PV System
 Introduction
Power

LAMPS
DC LOAD

FANS,

etc.
PV ARRAY Conditioner

DIODE R
AC LOAD
E

BATTERY
T
R
E
V
IN GRID
Construction of PV Array
 1. PV Array consists of several
Modules
 2. Single, polycrystalline or
amorphous
silicon
 3. Packing Factor
Losses
1. The transmission of the radiation is
reduced because of reflection of
the protective glass sheet on top
and absorption in it, and
2. The packing factor. That is, the
entire area of the module is not
covered by the solar cells but there
are large gaps between the
adjacent solar cells.
Space Wasted by Round Solar
Cells
 Suppose that the radius of the cells is r.
Then the total area required to place
four cells is:
 At = (2r + 2r) X (2r+2r) = 4r X 4r =
16r2 …………..(1)
 However, the area covered by the four
cells, the cell area, is:
 4X (π r2) = 4 πr2.
 Therefore, the ratio of the cell area to
the total area At, is:
 4 πr2 /16r2 = π/4 = 0.7854.
Connection of Array
T1
R1 R2 R3 R4

A1 B1 C1 D1
S1

A2 B2 C2 D2
S2

A3 B3 C3 D3
S3

T2

Figure 4. A typical array of solar modules with bypass diodes.

Bypass Diodes
 If a module in a string fails due to some
reason, or comes under the shadow of
some object then the current in that
module will reduce drastically and will
limit the current from the other two
which pass through it. In short the
current through a string will reduce. In
such a case the bypass diode
associated with that module will allow
the current to pass through itself. For
example if module D2 fails then S2 will
bypass the current generated by D1 and
D3.
Hot Spot Formation
1. Hot spots in a module.
2. A module consists of a large number
of solar cells connected in series. If
one cell is shaded and the module is
either short circuited or connected to a
heavy load then the current from the
other cells will cause i2R heat to be
generated in it. The cell under shadow
will present a high resistance.
Hot Spots (continued)
1. The other nine cells will approach
open circuit voltage Voc
2. This Voc will then be applied across
the shaded cell and force a current in
the reverse direction
3. This will not only reverse bias the
junction, which may cause a
breakdown, but also force the current
through its combined series and shunt
resistors, R = (Rs + Rsh)
Hot Spot in Shaded Cell
Equivalent Circuit of a
Solar Cell
The power conditioner

The power conditioner has two

parts:
1. The maximum power point
tracker, and
2. The battery charge/discharge
controller
The Maximum Power Point
Tracker (MPPT)
Converters and Algorithms
1. Buck Converter based MPPT
2. Boost Converter based
MPPT
Common Algorithms for
Converters
1. Perturb and Observe (P&O),
and
2. Incremental Conductance
Block Diagram of MPPT
 Microcontrollers and DSPs
A Typical P & O Algorithm
A 2.2kW MPPT Response
Curve
 The response time of a buck based
MPPT with P&O algorithm
VOC

VMPP
 Battery charge/discharge
controller
Note: Temp. Comp. at B+ = 14.56 mV/C (16.13mV/C)
Float Charging = 14.5 V
1N 5822 Load disconn. = 11.5 V
F1 D1 Load Re-conn. = 12 V
B+ To L2
+ C1
100

2
D3 SW 25V
1N 5822 1A

1
D2
PV+
1N 5822
8K2 R18
1% R16 2M2
MTP 2955 E D7 to D14 R9 8K2
3 2 8 * 1N 4148 (8K2) R6
1% R12
10K
5K6
4

4
R4
3 5
+ + D10
V+

V+
3V3

3
R1 D4 D5 R2
1 U1A 2K2 U2B 7
OUT D8 LM324 OUT
22K LM324 R13
1

47K 1N 4007 (1N 2 2 6 D11

4148) 2K2) - R11 R15 5K6 -
V-

V-
R7
4K7 39K 39K D9 Green LED
R3

1N 4148
1N 4148
11

11
1% 1% C2
(Charging)

1
B- 1M R5 R10 R14
2K2 8K2 270 R17 0.01 1K8
R8 1K
PV-

C3
0.1
D13
LM 385 - 2.5V R22 Battery Low 3V3
D12 12K BC107A 3
22K D14 2 Q1
47K 0.1
11

R24
C4 RED 1
1K8
11

9 LED R29 C5 D15

-
V-

13 0.01 R28 4V7

5V -
V-

U3C 8
3

OUT R30 TO CT OF
LM324 U4D 14 1 2 TRANSFORMER
10 LM324 OUT
+ R26 R25 SW BASE
2K2
V+

2 12 C7
4K7 + 1B WINDING
V+

2K7 0.01
4

R21
1

18K/1% R23 R27

R19 10K 270K
R20 Charge Controller for CFL 5W/7W based
2K7 18K/1% Lantern
A Lead Acid Battery
Chemical Equations
 For charging: the cell the positive
terminal of a DC voltage, higher than
that of the cell, is applied to the anode
with the negative end attached to its
cathode. The governing chemical
equations are:
1. PbSO4 + 2H2O PbO2 + 4H+ +SO42- +
2e- At the anode, and
2. PbSO4 + 2e- Pb + SO42-
At the Cathode
Discharging:

The equations at the anode

and the cathode become:
 PbO2 + 4H+ + SO42- + 2e- PbSO4 +
2H2O
And,
 Pb + SO42- PbSO4 + 2e-
Charge Versus Rate of
Discharge
Life Cycles Versus
Discharge
Design of a 1 kW Stand
Alone Photovoltaic Power
Supply
1. Average power output = 1 kW into a DC load
at a DC voltage of 108 Volts
2. Duration of operation = 24 hours/day
3. Average time of sunlight available = 8
hours/day
4. Number of sunless days = 2/week
5. Peak value of insolation in Delhi = 900
Watts/meters2
6. Maximum depth of discharge of battery = 50
%
7. Array should have a fixed tilt of 28 Deg. For
Delhi
 Block diagram of the 1 kW
PV power supply
 For DC loads only
DIODE

LAMPS
MPPT

FANS,
DC LOAD

etc.
PV ARRAY

CHARGE/
DISCHARGE
CONTROLLER

BATTERY
Assumptions
 The following assumptions have been made:
 The electrical efficiency of the circuit of the
MPPT = 90 %
 The charge/discharge cycle efficiency of the
battery (assuming new ones) = 90 %
 The diode is usually a built-in part of the MPPT
and therefore neglected. However it is
necessary to save the circuit from accidental
input voltage inversion.
 Wiring and cabling will introduce another 5 %
loss.
 Calculations
 The energy requirement for 7 days will
be calculated below.
 Power required = 1000 Watts
 Therefore, energy needed for 7 days =
1000 W X 24 Hr X 7 days = 168,000
Watt – hours.
 For an 8 hour sunlit day the energy
given directly to the load is:
 1000 W X 8 Hr X 5 Days = 40,000 W –
Hr -------------------- A1
 Since sunlight is available for only 5
days.
Calculations (Continued)
 Hence, the rest of the energy must be
stored in and supplied by the battery
bank.
 This energy is:
168,000 – 40,000 = 128,000 W – Hr
--------A2
 Again, the charge – discharge efficiency
of the battery bank is 90 %. Therefore,
the energy supplied to the battery is:
 128,000/0.9 = 142,222 W – Hr
-------------------A3
The size of the battery
bank
 If the voltage of the battery bank is 108
Volts, as desired, then its charge is:
 1, 42,222 W - Hr/108 V = 1316.87
Ampere – hours.-------- B1
 Since it is assumed that the batteries
must retain 50 % of the charge after
discharge, their charge holding capacity
must be twice this value. That is:
 Total charge = 1,316.87 X 2 = 2,633.75
A – Hr------------B2
Battery Sizing (Continued)
1. For 108 volts a string of 9 batteries, of
12 volts each, must be used.
2. The charge capacity of each battery
must be:
3. 2633.75 A - Hr/9 = 292.6 A –
Hr.-----------B3
4. In case 300 A - Hr batteries, which are
rare, are not available then two strings
of 9, 150 A – Hr ones may be connected
in parallel
Series – Parallel
Connection
CHARGE DISCHARGE
CONTROLLER CONTROLLER
D 1 D 2
D 4 TO LOAD

1
D 3 B T1 B T5

12

12
12 B T2 B T6

12
From B T3 B T7
MPPT
12

12
B T4 B T8
2

2
Diodes D1 , D2 ,D3 and D4

1. At 108 volts the load current is:

2. 1000 W/108 V = 9.26 Amperes
-----B4
3. Nominal voltage, during
conduction, across them is 0.7
Volt.
4. Therefore both the diode will
dissipate
9.26 A X 0.7 V = 6.8 Watts -----B5
 Dissipation in Diodes
1. Each diode will conduct half the
current of 9.26 Amperes, that is,
4.63 Amperes
2. Each diode, with 100 %
overrating, should be 10 amperes,
200 volts
3. Energy Consumed by Diodes:
 6.8 W X 24 hrs X 7 days = 1,142.4

W – Hr -------------- B6
Dissipation in D3 & D4
Energy passing through D3 & D4 is:
1. 40,000 W – Hr +1, 42,222 W – Hr = 1,
82,222 W – Hr --------- B7
2. This energy is passed in:
8 hours X 5 days = 40 hours --------------
B8
3. Hence the power is: 1, 82,222 W –
Hr/40 Hr = 4,555.55 Watts -------------- B9
4. This amounts to: 4,555.55 W/108 V =
42 Amperes --------------- B10
Power loss in D3 & D4
(Continued)
1. The voltage drop across the
diodes is 0.7 Volts.
2. Therefore the power dissipated in
D3 and D4 is: 42 A X 0.7 V =
29.53 Watts
3. Therefore energy consumed is:
29.53 W X (8 Hours X 5 days) =
1181 W – Hr --------------- B11
Total Array Energy
1. Thus the energy consumed by the four
diodes is:
1,142.4 W – Hr + 1,181 W – Hr =
2,323.4 W – Hr ------------------ B12
2. This must be supplied by the PV array.
Therefore the total array energy rises
to:
40,000 W – Hr +1, 42,222 W – Hr +
2,323.4 W - Hr = 1, 84,545.4 Watt –
hours -----B13
Total Array Energy
(Contd.)
1. This energy is given by the MPPT
which itself has an efficiency of 90
%. Hence the energy delivered at
the input of the MPPT from the
array is:
 1,84,545.4/0.9 = 2, 05,050.44

Watt – hours -------------- B14

Energy given to MPPT
Input
1. As assumed earlier there is a 5 %
loss in wiring and cabling, hence
the output of the array should be:
2, 05,050.44 + (5 X 2,
05,050.44)/100 = 2, 05,050.44 +
10,252.52 = 2, 15,302.96 W –
Hr----B15
. Array Size
 This energy of 2, 15,302.96 W – Hr
is to be generated by the array in 5
days with 8 hours of sunlight on
each day. Hence the power of the
array becomes:
 2, 05,050.44 W – Hr/ (8 hr X 5
days) = 5126.25 Watts
------------------ C1
Daily Variation of
Insolation
 Modules are Rated at 1000 W/m2
Array Size
 Average works out to:
 0.635 X 900 W = 571 Watts -------
C2
 Therefore the total size of the
array becomes from C1:
 5126.25 Watts X 1000/571 =
8977.67 Watts ---------- C3
Electrical Parameters PM
150

2. Maximum Power Rating Pmax. (Wp)*

150.0
3. Minimum Power Rating Pmin (Wp)*
180.0
4. Rated Current IMPP (A) 4.80
5. Rated Voltage VMPP (V) 34.0
6. Short Circuit Current Isc (A) 5.0
7. Open Circuit Voltage Voc (V) 42.8
Number of Modules
1. Since these modules are calibrated at
1000 W/m2 their MPP value will reduce
at 900 W/m2. The real MPP voltage will
be then:
34 X 9/10 = 30.6 Volts --------------------
C7
2. Therefore 3 modules in series will yield
91.8 Volts and the total number of
modules required for the array:
8977.67 Watts/150 Watts (Wp) = 59.85
= 60 ----- C8
3. Number of strings, with each strings
containing 3 modules is 60/3 = 20
Costing
The cost of the components can be
tabulated below:
 Solar module @ Rs. 200.00 per Watt =
8977.67 Watts X 200 = Rs.
17,95,534.00
 18 batteries, 150 A – Hr, 12 Volts each
@ Rs. 10,000.00 each = Rs.
1,80,000.00
 MPPT and Charge/Discharge controller
= Rs. 50,000.00_

Total =
Rs.20,25,534.00
Comparision
 If a life time of 10 years is taken for the
array and 5 years for the battery bank
then the cost amounts to: Rs. 22,
05,534.00. In ten years the electricity
produced is equal to:
 1 X 24 hours X 365 days X 10 years =
87,600 kW-Hr. ------------- D1
 Therefore the cost of this energy is:
 Rs. 22, 05,534/87,600 = Rs. 25.17 per
kW – Hr --------------D2
Comparison (Continued)
1. At present the cost of domestic
electricity from the grid is Rs. 4.60 per
kW – Hr
2. Cost of electricity from Diesel = Rs.
12.50/unit
3. If the life span of the PV array is taken
to be 20 years, the PV generated
power will compete with diesel
generated power
The Additional Benefits of
PV Power
1. Carbon credits, and
2. Lack of emission of polluting
gases.
Design of Solar Pump
1. The pump horsepower
HP = (4.19 X 10-6) (GPD)(h) ---------- E1
(PT)(PTF)(η)

GPD is the gallons per

day to be pumped,
PT is the pumping time,
PTE is the pumping time factor,
h is the effective height and
η is the wire-to-water efficiency of the
pump-motor combination.
Horsepower in MKS Units
In MKS, the horsepower is given by
 HP = (3.658 X 10-6) (LPD)(h) -----

E2
(PT)(PTF)(η)
 Where now LPD is the pumping

requirement in liters per day

 h is the effective pumping height

in meters.
Pumping Time Factor
 Use of an MPPT in the system
normally increases the daily
volume pumped by an additional
20%. Hence, a reasonable default
value for PTF when a MPPT is used
is 1.2 if the pump is connected
directly to the PV array, then the
PTF will be 1.0.
Pump Efficiency
 The wire-to-water efficiency, η, will
be specified by the pump
manufacturer. For fractional
horsepower pumps, it is typically
about 25% while larger pumps will
be more efficient.
Numerical
 Numerical:
 Specification for pumping system:
 Volume of water to be lifted = 2000
gallons/day.
 Water reservoir = 200 ft. underground
 Worst case peak Sun day = 6 hrs.
 PTF = 1
 Peak Sun = 6 hrs.
 Assume pump efficiency = 25%
 Piping friction losses = 5%
Calculations
 Therefore effective height = 200X 1.05
= 210 ft.
 Substituting in equation E1, pump HP =
1.17. However, the service factor is 25%
for a 1HP motor which means that a 1
HP motor can operate at 1.25 HP
without any damage to itself.
 1.17 HP = 1.17 X 746W = 872.82 W.
 Pump Operating DC Voltage = 96 V
Solar Array Calculations
 Since this is the load, the solar
array wattage can be calculated as
given in section C above. It is
important to notice that the use of
an MPPT in the system normally
increases the daily volume
pumped by an additional 20%.
Therefore, the final array size will
be less by 20%.
Design of a PV operated
Pump

Thank You