Introduction to Biological Concepts and Research

Chapter 1

1.1 What Is Life? Characteristics of Living Systems

Organized in a hierarchy
Each level with its own emergent properties

Contain chemical instructions

Govern structure and function

Engage in metabolic activities

1.1 (cont.)
Energy flows through; matter cycles Compensate for changes in external environment Reproduce and undergo development

Populations change from one generation to the next

Living Organisms

Fig. 1-1, p. 2

Hierarchy of Living Systems (1)

Cells
Lowest level of organization that is alive

Organisms
Unicellular or multicellular

Populations
Groups of organisms of the same kind, living together in the same area

Hierarchy of Living Systems (2)

Community
All populations living in an area

Ecosystems
Include communities that interact through their shared physical environment

Biosphere
The highest level Includes all Earths ecosystems

Hierarchy of Life

Fig. 1-2, p. 3

Biosphere All regions of Earths crust, waters, and atmosphere that sustain life

Ecosystem Group of communities interacting with their shared physical environment

Community Populations of all species that occupy the same area

Population Group of individuals of the same kind (that is, the same species) that occupy the same area Multicellular Organism Individual consisting of interdependent cells

Cell Smallest unit with the capacity to live and reproduce, independently or as part of a multi-cellular organism

Stepped Art Fig. 1-2, p. 3

Cell
Smallest unit with the capacity to live and reproduce, independently or as part of a multicellular organism

Fig. 1-2a, p. 3

Multicellular organism
Individual consisting of interdependent cells

Fig. 1-2b, p. 3

Population
Group of individuals of the same kind (that is, the same species) that occupy the same area

Fig. 1-2c, p. 3

Community
Populations of all species that occupy the same area

Fig. 1-2d, p. 3

Ecosystem
Group of communities interacting with their shared physical environment

Fig. 1-2e, p. 3

Biosphere
All regions of Earths crust, waters, and atmosphere that sustain life

Fig. 1-2f, p. 3

Animation: Lifes levels of organization

Information Flow
Living organisms have complex structures
Established by instructions coded in DNA

Information in DNA is copied into RNA

Guides production of protein molecules

Proteins carry out most activities of life

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

Fig. 1-3, p. 3

Information Flow

Fig. 1-4, p. 4

DNA

RNA

Protein

Information is stored in DNA.

The information in DNA is copied into RNA.

The information in RNA guides the production of proteins.

Fig. 1-4, p. 4

Metabolism
The activity of obtaining and using energy
Maintenance Growth Reproduction

Two primary metabolic processes

Photosynthesis Cellular respiration

Energy and Matter

Energy
Flows through the hierarchy of life Eventually released as heat, which cannot be used by living systems

Matter
Recycled within the biosphere

Metabolism

Fig. 1-5, p. 4

Energy is stored as chemical energy. Oxygen

Sugar

Oxygen

Electromagnetic energy in sunlight

Photosynthesis captures electromagnetic energy from sunlight.

Cellular respiration releases chemical energy from sugar molecules.

Carbon dioxide

and Water

Released chemical energy is made available for other metabolic processes.

Fig. 1-5, p. 4

Energy is stored as chemical energy. Sugar

Oxygen

Oxygen

Electromagnetic energy in sunlight

Photosynthesis captures electromagnetic energy from sunlight.

Cellular respiration releases chemical energy from sugar molecules.

Carbon dioxide and Water

Released chemical energy is made available for other metabolic processes. Stepped Art Fig. 1-5, p. 4

Compensation for Change

Cells and organisms use receptors to detect changes in environment Triggers a compensating reaction that allows the organism to survive

Reproduction and Development

Organisms reproduce

Offspring develop into mature, reproductive adults

Evolution

Populations undergo biological evolution as generations replace one another over time

Energy Flow and Nutrient Recycling

Fig. 1-6, p. 5

Secondary Consumers

Heat Decomposers Heat

Heat Primary consumers

Sun

Heat

Nutrients recycled

Heat

KEY
Energy ultimately lost as heat Energy transfer

Primary Producers
Fig. 1-6, p. 5

1.2 Biological Evolution

Darwin and Wallace explained how populations of organisms change through time Mutations in DNA allow evolutionary change Adaptations enable organisms to survive and reproduce in their environments

Populations Change With Time (1)

Changes occur in structure, function, types of organisms Theory of evolution by natural selection
Certain characteristics allow some organisms to survive better and reproduce more than others in their population

Populations Change With Time (2)

Instructions for characteristics are coded in DNA
Successful characteristics become more common in later generations

Average characteristics of offspring generation differ from those of parent generation

Life Cycle: Silkworm Moth

Fig. 1-7, p. 6

a. Egg b. Larva

c. Pupa

d. Recently emerged e. Adult adult

Fig. 1-7, p. 6

Animation: One-way energy flow and materials cycling

Heredity (1)
Genes
Segments of DNA Code instructions for many characteristics Passed through reproduction from parents to offspring

Heredity (2)
Mutations
Changes in structure, number, or arrangement of DNA molecules Create variability among individuals

Variability
Natural selection and other processes cause biological evolution

Adaptations

Accumulation of favorable characteristics over many generations may produce adaptations Enable individuals to survive longer or reproduce more

Artificial Selection

Fig. 1-8, p. 7

Animation: Insect development

Camouflage in Rock Pocket Mice

Fig. 1-9, p. 8

Distributions of Rock Pocket Mice

Fig. 1-10, p. 9

Arizona

New Mexico

N = 18 N = 11 Mouse color

N = 15

N=5

N = 12 N = 8

Pinacate
Rock color

Armendaris

Most mice captured on pale rocks had sandy-colored fur. Most mice captured on dark rocks had black fur.

Fig. 1-10, p. 9

Diversity of Life on Earth

Produced by accumulation of adaptations and other genetic differences between populations over long spans of time

1.3 Biodiversity

Species
Closely related populations that can interbreed

Biologists classify organisms into three domains and several kingdoms

Hierarchy of Classification
Species Genus Family Order Class Phylum Kingdom

Classification

Fig. 1-11, p. 10

Domain: Eukarya

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Mammalia

Order: Carnivora

Family: Canidae

Genus: Canis

Species: Canis familiaris

Fig. 1-11, p. 10

Domain: Eukarya

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Mammalia

Order: Carnivora

Family: Canidae

Genus: Canis

Species: Canis familiaris Stepped Art Fig. 1-11, p. 10

Domains
Biologists organize kingdoms into 3 domains based on characteristics of cell structure
Bacteria Archaea Eukarya

3 Domains of Life

Fig. 1-13, p. 12

a. Domain Bacteria

c. Domain Eukarya Kingdom Protoctista

Kingdom Fungi

b. Domain Archaea

Kingdom Plantae

Kingdom Animalia

Fig. 1-13, p. 12

Kingdoms
Bacteria and Archaea each include one kingdom Eukarya is divided into four kingdoms:
Protoctista Plantae Fungi Animalia

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Fig. 1-12, p. 11

a. Escherichia coli, a prokaryote DNA

Fig. 1-12a, p. 11

b. Paramecium aurelia, a eukaryote

Nucleus with DNA

Fig. 1-12b, p. 11

1.4 Biological Research

Biologists conduct basic and applied research using the scientific method Research includes collecting observational and experimental data Hypotheses may be tested with controlled experiments Or, a null hypotheses may be used to evaluate observational data

1.4 (cont.)
Model organisms may be used to study fundamental biological processes Molecular techniques have revolutionized biological research Scientific theories are ideas that have withstood the test of time

Basic and Applied Research

Basic research advances our knowledge of living systems Applied research solves practical problems

Data

Observational data describe biological organisms or the details of biological processes Experimental data describe results of an experimental manipulation

Hypotheses

Working explanations developed by scientists about the relationships between variables Scientific hypotheses must be falsifiable

Experiment

A well-designed experiment
Considers alternative hypotheses Includes control treatments and replicates

Experimental Research

Fig. 1-14, p. 15

Fig. 1-14a (1), p. 15

Fig. 1-14a (2), p. 15

Fig. 1-14b, p. 15

Animation: Lifes diversity

Null Hypotheses

Explanations of what scientists would see if their hypothesis was wrong Used to evaluate observational or experimental data when experiments are unfeasible

Observational Research

Fig. 1-15de, p. 17

Anolis gundlachi

Fig. 1-15a, p. 17

Anolis cristatellus

Fig. 1-15b, p. 17

Copper Anolis model

Fig. 1-15c, p. 17

Percentage of models and lizards perched in sun or shade

Percentage in sun or shade

Anolis gundlachi

Percentage in sun or shade

Anolis cristatellus
In the habitat where A. cristatellus lives, nearly all models perched in shade, but most lizards perched in sun.

In the forest where A. gundlachi lives, nearly all models and nearly all lizards perched in shade.

Models

Lizards

Models

Lizards

Perched in sun Perched in shade

Fig. 1-15d, p. 17

Temperatures of models and lizards

Percentage of observations Anolis gundlachi Lizards Percentage of observations Anolis cristatellus Lizards
Body temperatures of A. cristatellus were significantly higher than those of the randomly placed models.

Body temperatures of A. gundlachi were not significantly different from those of the randomly placed models.

Models

Models

Temperature (C)

Temperature (C)

Fig. 1-15e, p. 17

Animation: Sample size and accuracy

Modern Techniques
Model organisms
Easy to maintain in the laboratory Subjects of much research

Molecular techniques
Manipulation of specific genes in the laboratory Allow detailed analysis of DNA of many species

A Scientific Theory
A set of broadly applicable hypotheses
Completely supported by repeated tests under many conditions and different situations

Theory of evolution by natural selection

Explains how life evolved through natural processes Central importance to biology

Animation: How do scientists use random samples to test hypotheses

Video: Bird flu