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Bacteria
Bacteria are single-celled organisms Contain no membrane bound nucleus
Termed prokaryotes = pre nucleus
as ER or Golgi or mitochondria) Cytoplasm is surrounded by a lipid membrane with is surrounded by a rigid cell wall DNA bundled in a region called the nucleoid
Pili
Bacterial Nomenclature
Binomial naming system
Two word naming system
abbreviated
E. coli
Bacterial Morphology
Morphology classification by shape
naming system
Ex. Bacillus subtillis, the word Bacillus means rod Ex. Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus means
a chain of spheres Ex. Helicobacter pylori, helix shaped bacterium Many names of bacteria do not reference there shape such as E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, or Burkholdaria cepacia.
Bacterial Morphology
Examples of Morphology
Bacteria exhibit a variety of shapes
Coccus Spherical Bacillus Rod or cylinder shaped
Examples of Morphology
Other shapes
Coccobacillus Short round rod Vibrio Curved rod Spirillum Spiral shaped Spirochete Helical shape
reactions and activities of the cell take place Cell Membrane- barrier between the internal cell fluid (cytoplasm) and the exterior environment. It is selectively permeable only allowing in selected comounds Cell Wall- rigid structure surrounding the cell membrane that gives bacteria there shape. Stronger than the cell membrane helps hold the cell together and maintain structural integrity. The cell wall can be of varying degrees of thickness depending on the type of bacteria Cell capsule- slime layer that protects bacteria and helps bacteria to adhere to surfaces
(DNA) in the bacterial cell. Typically bacterial DNA is one large circular DNA molecule that is packed together by supercoiling.
*Bacterial DNA should not be referred to as a
chromosome because it is not packed together using chromatin and does not resemble the organization of DNA in eukaryotes. The alternate name for bacterial DNA is genophore
that is separate and distinct from the nucleoid DNA. The plasmid is typically thousands of times smaller than the nucleoid DNA but often very important as it may carry genes for antibiotic drug resistance
propels the bacteria when it spins. Pili- structure made of protein subunits that extend out of the cell. Function for attachment to surfaces and gliding motility. Inclusions- small structure used to store excess material typically as nutrient reserve. Stored materials include phosphates, polysaccharides, nitrogen, sulfur, proteins and biopolymers Ribosome- a structure consisting of protein and rRNA. It translates mRNA into a sequence of amino acids (proteins)
Size Distribution
Peptidoglycan
Polymer of disaccharide
Figure 4.13a
Figure 4.13b, c
Figure 4.13b
the plasma membrane. Protection from phagocytes, complement, antibiotics. O polysaccharide antigen, e.g., E. coli O157:H7. Lipid A is an endotoxin. Porins (proteins) form channels through membrane
Figure 4.13c
Gram-negative
Alcohol dissolves outer membrane and leaves holes in
Archaea
Wall-less, or
Plasma Membrane
Figure 4.14a
Plasma Membrane
Phospholipid bilayer
Peripheral proteins
Integral proteins Transmembrane proteins
Figure 4.14b
olive oil. Proteins move to function Phospholipids rotate and move laterally
Figure 4.14b
Typhoid fever
Organism
Salmonella typhi, a Gram-negative bacteria. Similar but often less severe disease is caused by
Salmonella serotype paratyphi A. Many genes are shared with E. coli and at least 90% with S. typhimurium, Polysaccharide capsule Vi: present in about 90% of all freshly isolated S. typhi and has a protective effect against the bactericidal action of the serum of infected patients. The ratio of disease caused by S. typhi to that caused by S. paratyphi is about 10 to
Pathogenesis
Entry in GIT localisation in Gut associated
lymphoid tissue Lymphatic channel thoracic duct circulation primary silent bacteremia localisation in macrophages of RES in spleen, liver, bone marrow (incubation period 8-14 days) secondary bacteremia
Complicated disease
10% of typhoid patients
malena in up to 3%. Intestinal perforation has also been reported in up to 3% of hospitalized cases. CNS: Encephalopathy, Typhoid meningitis, encephalomyelitis, Guillain-Barr syndrome, cranial or peripheral neuritis and psychotic symptoms Others: Hepatitis, myocarditis, pneumonia, disseminated intravascular
Diagnosis
Culture: blood, bone marrow, bile Bone marrow aspirate culture is the gold standard
(i) the limitations of laboratory media (ii) the presence of antibiotics (iii) the volume of the specimen cultured (iv) the time of collection, patients with a history of fever for 7 to 10 days being more likely than others to have a positive blood culture.
Widal Test
O antibodies appear on days 6-8 and H antibodies on
days 10-12 Negative in up to 30% of culture-proven cases of typhoid fever S. typhi shares O and H antigens with other Salmonella serotypes and has cross-reacting epitopes with other Enterobacteriacae, and this can lead to false-positive results. Such results may also occur in other clinical conditions, e.g. malaria, typhus, bacteraemia caused by other organisms, and cirrhosis This is acceptable so long as the results are interpreted with care in accordance with appropriate local cut-off values for the determination of positivity.
after the onset of symptoms and signs. This should kept in mind when a negative serological test result is being interpreted. New serological tests
IDL Tubex
Typhidot (better), high negative predictive value Dipstick test,
Typhoid epidemiology
Oral drugs
Ofloxacin: 15-20 mg / kg for 7-14 days
days
Fluoroquinolones
Optimal for the treatment of typhoid fever Relatively inexpensive, well tolerated and more
rapidly and reliably effective than the former first-line drugs, viz. chloramphenicol, ampicillin, amoxicillin and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. The majority of isolates are still sensitive. Attain excellent tissue penetration, kill S. typhi in its intracellular stationary stage in monocytes/macrophages and achieve higher active drug levels in the gall bladder than other drugs. Rapid therapeutic response, i.e. clearance of fever and symptoms in three to five days, and very low rates of post-treatment carriage.
Chloramphenicol
The disadvantages of using chloramphenicol
include a relatively high rate of relapse (57%), long treatment courses (14 days) and the frequent development of a carrierstate in adults. The recommended dosage is 50 - 75 mg per kg per day for 14 days divided into four doses per day, or for at least five to seven days after defervescence. Oral administration gives slightly greater bioavailability than intramuscular (i.m.) or intravenous (i.v.) administration of the succinate salt.
Cephalosporins
Ceftriaxone: 50-75 mg per kg per day one or two
doses Cefotaxime: 40-80 mg per kg per day in two or three doses Cefoperazone: 50-100 mg per kg per day
intravenous dexamethasone in addition to antimicrobials Initial dose of 3 mg/kg by slow i.v. infusion over 30 minutes 1 mg/kg 6 hourly for 2 days Mortality can be reduced by some 80-90% in these high-risk patients
GI complication
Patients with intestinal haemorrhage need intensive
care, monitoring and blood transfusion. Intervention is not needed unless there is significant blood loss. Surgical consultation for suspected intestinal perforation is indicated. If perforation is confirmed, surgical repair should not be delayed longer than six hours. Metronidazole and gentamicin or ceftriazone should be administered before and after surgery if a fluoroquinolone is not being used to treat leakage of intestinal bacteria into the abdominal cavity. Early intervention is crucial, and mortality rates increase as the delay between perforation and surgery lengthens. Mortality rates vary between 10% and 32%.
Relapse
5-20% of typhoid fever cases that have
apparently been treated successfully. A relapse is heralded by the return of fever soon after the completion of antibiotic treatment. The clinical manifestation is frequently milder than the initial illness. Cultures should be obtained and standard treatment should be administered.
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Prokaryotic Cells
Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Prokaryote comes from the Greek words for
prenucleus. Eukaryote comes from the Greek words for true nucleus.
Prokaryote
One circular
Eukaryote
Paired
chromosome, not in a membrane No histones No organelles Peptidoglycan cell walls Binary fission
chromosomes, in nuclear membrane Histones Organelles Polysaccharide cell walls Mitotic spindle
Unusual shapes
Star-shaped Stella Square Haloarcula
Figure 4.5
Arrangements
Pairs: diplococci,
diplobacilli
Clusters:
staphylococci
Chains:
streptococci, streptobacilli
Glycocalyx
Outside cell wall Usually sticky
A capsule is neatly
organized A slime layer is unorganized & loose Extracellular polysaccharide allows cell to attach Capsules prevent phagocytosis
Figure 4.6a, b
Flagella
Outside cell wall Made of chains of
flagellin Attached to a protein hook Anchored to the wall and membrane by the basal body
Figure 4.8
Flagella Arrangement
Figure 4.7
Figure 4.8
Motile Cells
Rotate flagella to run or tumble Move toward or away from stimuli (taxis)
Motile Cells
Figure 4.9
Axial Filaments
Endoflagella In spirochetes Anchored at one end
Figure 4.10a
Fimbriae allow
attachment Pili are used to transfer DNA from one cell to another
Figure 4.11
Cell Wall
Prevents osmotic lysis Made of peptidoglycan (in bacteria)
Figure 4.6a, b
Vaccination
Vi polysaccharide, is given in a single dose
injection when the highest antibody concentration is obtained. Protective efficacy was 72% one and half years after vaccination and was still 55% three years after a single dose. In Asian countries where Vi-negative strains have been reported at the low average level of 3%.
stomach. Protection as from 10-14 days after the third dose. > 5 years. Protective efficacy of the enteric-coated capsule formulation seven years after the last dose is still 62% in areas where the disease is endemic; Antibiotics should be avoided for seven days before or after the immunization
Antibiotic resistance
MDR is mediated by plasmid
single point mutations in the quinoloneresistancedetermining region of the gyrA gene Nalidixic acid resistant: MIC of fluoroquinolones for these strains was 10 times that for fully susceptible strains.