Electromagnetic Field And Waves

EE 221
Spring 2004

Lecture 2
January 28 2004

Ahmed Junaid Omer
Electronics Department
Air University
Vector Basics
Convention:
vectors with
an arrow or bold
vectors are usually
functions of the
spatial parameters
magnitude of the vector component
(possibly a function of x,y,z)
in the y-direction
convention:
unit vectors

A
A
a
n

=
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
z
a z y x
z
A
y
a z y x
y
A
x
a z y x
x
A z y x A , , , , , , , , + + =
Vector Addition
( ) ) ( ) (
z z z y y y x x x
B A a B A a B A a C + + + + + =
A
B
C
Parallelogram rule
B
A
C
Head-to-tail rule
Subtraction is equivalent to the addition of
A to negative B. ie. D = A B = A + (-B)
Position Vectors
z y x
z y x
a z a y a x R
a z a y a x R
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
+ + =
+ + =

( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1 2 1 2
1 2 12
z z a y y a x x a
R R R
z y x
+ + =
=

The vector R
12
is the position vector
from P
1
to P
2

Dot Product (scalar product)
( )
AB
B A B A u cos

=

AB

Always yields a scalar!
A cos(u
AB
) is the component of A along B.
We say this is the projection of A on B.
If two vectors are orthogonal their dot product is zero ie
A A=|A|
2
=A
2

B
Cross Product (Vector product)
A
B
B sin
AB

A B
A B = AB sin
AB

(a) Cross-product
Note how the cross product produces
the normal to the plane containing the
two vectors! This will relate tangential
and normal components.
Cross product (ctd.)
y z x
y x z
z y x
a a a
a a a
a a a
=
=
=
z y x
z y x
z y x
B B B
A A A
a a a
B A =

x
a
z
a
Move clockwise in the direction of the arrow
the cross product is positive. Move in the counter-clockwise
direction and the cross product is negative.
y
a
Triple Product
( ) ( ) ( ) B A C A C B C B A

= =




Two products are meaningful:
Scalar triple product
Vector triple product
( ) ( ) ( ) B A C C A B C B A

=
Coordinate system
dz
dy dx




Cartesian or rectangular
x
y
z
dydz ds
x
=
O
dxdy
z
ds =
dxdz
y
ds =
y
a
x
a
z
a
x
a
z
a
y
a
z
a
y
a
x
a
=
=
=
0
1
= = =
= = =
x z z y y x
z z y y x x
.a a .a a .a a
.a a .a a .a a
dxdydz dv
dxdy
z
ds
dxdz
y
ds
dydz
x
ds
=
=
=
=




Cartesian or rectangular
( ) ( ) ( )
z
B
z
A
y
B
y
A
x
B
x
A B A
)
z
a
z
(a
z
B
z
A )
y
a
z
(a
y
B
z
A )
x
a
z
(a
x
B
z
A
)
z
a
y
(a
z
B
y
A )
y
a
y
(a
y
B
y
A )
x
a
y
(a
x
B
y
A
z
a
x
a
z
B
x
A
y
a
x
a
y
B
x
A
x
a
x
a
x
B
x
A B A
z
B
z
a
y
B
y
a
x
B
x
a .
z
A
z
a
y
A
y
a
x
A
x
a B A
z
B
z
a
y
B
y
a
x
B
x
a B
z
A
z
a
y
A
y
a
x
A
x
a A
+ + = -
- + - + -
+ - + - + -
+ - + - + - = -
+ + + + = -
+ + =
+ + =
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
0
0
0
0
0 0
Dot product




Cartesian or rectangular (ctd.)
Cross Product
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
z y x
z y x
z y x
x y y x z z x x z y y z z y x
z z z z y z y z x z x z
z y z y y y y y x y x y
z x z x y x y x x x x x
B B B
A A A
a a a
B A B A a B A B A a B A B A a
a a B A a a B A a a B A
a a B A a a B A a a B A
a a B A a a B A a a B A
z
B
z
a
y
B
y
a
x
B
x
a
z
A
z
a
y
A
y
a
x
A
x
a B A
z
B
z
a
y
B
y
a
x
B
x
a B
z
A
z
a
y
A
y
a
x
A
x
a A
=
+ + =
+ + =
+ + + =
+ + + =
+ + + + =
+ + =
+ + =
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
) (
0
0
0




Cylindrical Coordinates
|
|
|
a
r
a
z
a
r
a
z
a a
z
a a
r
a
=
=
=
y
x
z
z
Z+dz

+d
r
dr+r
rd
dz
dr
dz rdrd dv
rdrd
z
ds
drdz ds
dz rd
r
ds
|
|
|
|
=
=
=
=




Cylindrical Coordinates (ctd.)
a
r
a

a
z

a
x
Cos -sin 0
a
y
Sin Cos 0
a
z
0 0 1
y
x
O

a

a
y

a
r

a
x

z z
r y
r x
=
=
=
|
|
sin
cos




Spherical Coordinates (ctd.)
u |
| u
| u
a a a
a a a
a a a
R
R
R
=
=
=
A vector in spherical coordinates is
written as
| | u u
A a A a A a A
R R
+ + =




Spherical Coordinates (Ctd.)
dRdd R dv
RdRd

ds
dRd R

ds
dd R
R
ds
sin
sin
sin
2
2
=
=
=
=
x
y
R sin d
z

ds
R
= R
2
sin d d
ds

=R dR d

d
dR
ds

=R sin dR d
O
R sin
u
| u
| u
cos
sin sin
cos sin
R z
R y
R x
=
=
=




Spherical Coordinates (Ctd.)
a
R
a

a
x
SinCos CosCos -Sin
a
y
SinSin CosSin Cos
a
z
Cos -Sin 0




Gradient, Div, Curl
These are differential operators and are fundamental
to electromagnetic theory:
c
Div: operates on a
vector to produce
a scalar
z y x
z
y
x
A A A
z y x
z
A
y
A
x
A
a
z

z
a
y
y x
c
c
c
c
c
c
= V
c
c
+
c
+
c
c
= V
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V


A
A
| | |
|
Grad: operates on a scalar
function to produce
a vector
Curl: operates on a
vector to produce a
vector
a
x
a
x
a
y
a
z





Gradient of a scalar field
If (x,y,z) is a real function of 3 variables, such a function is called
a scalar field. The gradient of , denoted grad or V is a vector
according to the rule:
read as
del phi
Loosely we can say say that, the gradient is a measure of the
maximum rate of change of the surface described by (x,y,z)
and that this rate of change occurs in a specific direction.

Note that the gradient operator turns a scalar function into a
vector function!
a
z

z
a
y
y x
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V
| | |
| a
x




Example of gradient
If we evaluated the gradient at point P (2,-1,0), the value is

If we look from the surface in various directions, we would
note that the maximum change of the surface occurs in the
direction given by the above vector.
( )
z
a
z
xe
y
a x
x
a
z
e x
z
xe y x z y x
+
|
.
|

\
|
= V
=
2
2
2
, ,
|
|
( )
z y x
a a a p 2 4 3 + = V|




Other coordinate systems
We occasionally need to evaluate the gradient in other coordinate
systems. In this case we look up the relevant expressions in
tables
| u
|
| u u
|
a
R
a
R
a
R
a
z
a
r
a
r
R
z r
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V
sin
1 1
1
(Cylindrical)
(Spherical)




Electric Flux Density (D)
+Q
-Q
a
b
The electric flux density in the
region between a pair of charged
concentric spheres. The direction
magnitude of D are not functions of
dielectric between the spheres
r
2
r
2
r
2
a
r 4
Q
D
a
b 4
Q
D
a
a 4
Q
D
t
t
t
=
=
=
(Inner sphere)
(Outer sphere)
Insulator or
dielectric
The direction of D at any point is the direction of
the flux lines at that point, and the magnitude
is given by the number of flux lines crossing a
surface normal to the lines divided by the surface
area




Divergence
v
s
v
A
-
~
}
A
d A
divA
0
lim
The divergence of a vector field A at a point, abbreviated div A,
as the net outward flux Of A per unit volume as the volume
about the point ends to zero:
z
A
y
A
x
A
z y x
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= divA




Physical interpretation of Div
V
Flux in = flux out
so no sources or
sinks inside V.
Flux out > flux in
Positive
divergence.
Must be a source
inside V.
Flux out < flux in
Negative
divergence.
Must be a sink or
drain inside V.




Other coordinate systems
( )
( ) ( ) Spherical A div
l Cylindrica A div
|
|
u
u
u
u u
|
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
A
R
A
R
R
A R
R
R
z
z
A
A
r
r
rA
r r
sin
1
sin
sin
1
2
2
1
1 1
We occasionally need to evaluate the gradient in other coordinate
systems. In this case we look up the relevant expressions in
tables




Divergence theorem
The volume integral of the divergence of a vector field equals the
total outward flux of the vector through the surface hat bounds
Volume:
} }
- = - V
s v
ds A dv A
It converts a volume integral of the divergence of a vector to a
closed surface integral of the vector and vice versa
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ds A dv A
ds A ds A
dv A A
A of integral volume the , definition by is, side left the Where
ds A A
ds A A
-
}
=
}
- V
-
}
=
(
(

=
}
-
A
}
- V =
(
(

=
A - V
A
- V
(
(
(

=
}
-
A
=
(
(

A
=
- V
A
}
- = A - V
s v
s
N
j
sj
j
v
v
N
j
j
v
j
j
v
N
j
j
s
j
v
j
v
N
j
j
j
v
sj j
v
j
1
0
lim
1
0
lim
1
0
lim
1
0
lim




Divergence theorem (ctd.)
j
v A
Subdivided volume for proof of divergence
theorem




Curl
The curl of a vector field is concerned with rotation of a vector
field. Put another way, rotation can be used as a measure of
the non-uniformity of a field, the more non-uniform a field the
larger the curl value.

Uniform B field
curl is zero.
non-uniform
field, non-zero
curl.




Curl
a
n

dl
Relation between a
n
and dl
The curl of a vector field A, denoted by curl
A or A, is a vector whose magnitude is the
maximum net circulation of A per unit area
as the area tends to zero and whose direction
is the normal direction of the area when the
area is oriented to make the net circulation
maximum.

}
- = V
C
dl A A A Curl




Physical interpretation of Curl
River
velocity
Centre of river flows
at maximum speed.
Now put the curl meter
into the river and see
what happens!
Rotating paddle wheel
or curl-meter
Position
Three different positions (centre left
and right)
River River
River
No rotation!
Anti-clockwise
rotation.
Clockwise
rotation.
Conclusions
Curl-meter only indicates rotation if there is non-uniformity in
the vector field.
The amount of rotation is proportional to the degree of
non-uniformity.
The rotation cannot be described just with a scalar. Direction
should also be given. Rotation is therefore a vector quantity.
Curl therefore describes the variation across the field. The above
physical interpretation is concerned with only one dimension or
one component. For electromagnetic fields we must imagine
the concept applying to three dimensions.




Curl (ctd.)
| u
| u
|
|
u
| u
u
u
|
A R RA A
R
R a R a a
R
A rA A
z r
a r a a
r
A A A
z y x
a a a
R
R
z r
z r
z y x
z y x
sin
sin
sin
1
1
2
c
c
c
c
c
c
= V
c
c
c
c
c
c
= V
c
c
c
c
c
c
= V
A
A
A
Cartesian
Cylindrical
Spherical




Stokess theorem
The surface integral of the curl of a vector field over an open
surface is equal to the closed line integral of the vector along
the contour bounding the surface.
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
} }
}

}
}

}
- = - V
- = |
.
|

\
|
-
- V = A - V
- = A - V
=
A
=
A
C s
C
N
j
c s
s
j
N
j
j
s
c
j
j
j j
j
j
s
s
dl A ds A
dl A dl A
ds A A
dl A A
1
0
1
0
lim
lim
Subdivied area for proof of Stokess theorem




Two Null Identities
( )
( ) 0
0
V - V
V V
A
V