PERCEPTION MEANING AND DEFINITION

Meaning of : Understood act of seeing what is there to be seen which is influenced by the individual, the object and the situation. Definition Perception includes all those processes by which an individual receives information about the environment seeing ; hearing : feeling : tasting and smelling.study of these perceptual processes shows that their functioning is affected by three classes of variables ; the objects or events being perceived ;the environment in which perception occurs and the individual doing the perceiving

PERCEPTION AND SEMANTICS

Confusion about sensation and perception not synonymous : Sensation : Study of sensation is concerned with the initial contact between organisms and their physical environment. Focuses on various forms of sensory stimulating and how these inputs are registered by our sensory organs. Raw sensory inputs are of no consequence need to be processed and interpreted.
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 Perception : Job perceptionis to process and interpret Sensation and other steps constitute total perception process Inherited or Learnt : Innate or learnt at early stage e.g. child on a table (Glass).

FACTORS INFLUENCING PERCEPTION

Situational Factors

Physical, Social / OrganiSational Setting

Perceivers Characteristics : Needs : Experiences : Values : Attitudes : Personality Characteristics of Perceived : Nature : Size : Appearance : Location

Individuals Perception

FACTORS INFLUENCING PERCEPTION

Stimuli External & Internal Organising Organism receives stimuli thru five sensory organs, tasting, smelling, seeing, hearing, touching. Ambiguous figures, figure ground, Grouping, Constancy Response Covert Overt Attitudes Motivating Behavior feelings

Selective Attention External Internal Factors Nature Learning Location Needs Size Age Contrast Interest Repetition Ambivalence Novelty Paranoid Familiarity Perception
Interpreting Perceptual set ,attribution ,stereotyping halo effect, defence, projection

RECEIVING STIMULI
Confusion about sensation and perception not synonymous : Sensation : Study of sensation is concerned with the initial contact between organisms and their physical environment. Focuses on various forms of sensory stimulating and how these inputs are registered by our sensory organs. Raw sensory inputs are of no consequence need to be processed and interpreted.

SELECTING STIMULI
Process of filtering information received by our senses is called Selecting Stimuli or selective attention. EXTERNAL FACTORS INFLUENCING SELECTION NATURE : Visual or auditory animate objects and audio effect. LOCATION : Strategic to draw attention e.g. headlines / front page news. COLOUR : Attracts attention and portrays realism colors also have psychological impact some stimulate others act as depressant

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 SIZE : Large attracts. CONTRAST : Contrast principle states that external stimuli which stands out against the background. MOVEMENT : Principle of motion states moving or jets attract more attention REPETION : Repeated external stimulus attracts more attention e.g. TV AD repeated flashed NOVELTY AND FAMILIARITY : Either a novel or a familiar external situation draws attention also new objects in familiar or familiar objects in new settings . Job rotation maintains interest and stimulated Novel ideas pictures also stimulate interest.

INTERNAL FACTORS INFLUENCING SELECTION

LEARNING : A cognitive factor influences perception creates expectancy people perceive what the want to e.g. bird in the hand. PERCEPTION : Past experience influence perception executive decisions are subject to such influences. PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS : Needs play a significant role in perceptual selectivity, unreal things seem real because of needs - e.g. mirage. Psychic energies expended satisfying basic psychological needs, like esteem ,unconsciously interact only with those who fill this. Only when psychological need filled he can appreciate others. Cont...

AGE DIFFERENCES : Generation gap contributes to difference in perception. E.g. Morale also reaction to change. INTEREST : Perception unconsciously influenced by interests of perceiver e.g. architect passing buildings. Influence on perception interests cannot be distinguished from needs e.g. person with a particular interest needs to meet it. Once satisfied most needs no longer influence perception. E.g viewing the world through a lens see world not as it but how we perceive it.

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 AMBIVALENCE : Ambivalence affects perceptions e.g. opinion about a college. Selectively perceive only what is desired ignoring negative qualities to worn off the repressed feeling surfaces. PARANOID PERCEPTION : State when a persons perception is so selective that he does not find common grounds of communication. Quality of emotionally disturbed person whose perceptual field differs from reality and personalized interpretation. Self concept poor and insecure leading to inflexibility.

PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION
Perceptual organization is the process by which people group stimuli into recognizable patterns :selection gives way to organizing e.g. object made of wood with four legs seat and back - as a chair. So much to learn about how the human mind assembles organizes and categorizes information. Certain factors in perceptual organisation help in under standing factors are. Figure background. Grouping. Constancy. Ambiguous figures.

FACTORS PTUAL ORGANISATIONS

AMBIGUOS FIGURES : Perceptual organization becomes difficult when their is disorganized or on fusing stimuli in the external background e.g. (Fig 6.8 and 6.9 P130). We see two images, ultimately whole image.

FIGURE BACKGROUND
Considered most basic form of perceptual organization. Relationship of the target to its background influences perception e.g. Chameleon. Perceived objects stand out as separable from background. In a noisy restaurant you are able to hold meaningful conversation with a colleague due to capacity to distinguish sight and sound of colleage (figure) and other people and noise (background) e.g. fig 6.11

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 What we see depends on what we see as the figure and what as the background. Major purpose of studying OB is to caution the reader about important stimuli. Key theories and concepts like motivation and leadership call attention to variables that affect organisational performance. Trained manager capable of distinguishing between figure and background.

PERCEPTUAL GROUPINGS (GASTALT)

Object of similar shape size or colour are grouped together. In an org all employees who wear whiter collar perceived as a group when reality each is a unique individual. Although principle of uniformity is helpful in making sense of environment it has negative impact of perceptual stereotyping. (6.12 fig.) PRINCIPLE OF PROXIMITY : Underlines tendency to perceive stimuli which are near one another as belonging together. Several workers working on a machine perceived as one group and collectively he responsible for operation or failure.
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 PRINCIPLE OF CLOSURE : Perceive a whole when none exists. Persons perceptual process closes gaps which are unfilled from sensory inputs. Principle demonstrates perceivers ability to perceive a whole object when only a part evident. In an org a manager able to understand complex issues issues with a part of information missing. Based on experience and imagination manager fills in missing pieces to make a decision.

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 PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUTY : Tendency to perceive objects as continuing patterns. Continuity is a useful organizing principle also has negative aspects e.g. inability to detect change and perceive uniqueness. In business forecasting a continuity error is to assume that the future will simply reflect current vents and trends. Principle of continuity differs from closure in that closure supplies missing stimuli and continuity a person tends to perceive continuous lines or patterns.
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 PRINCIPLES OF AREA : When one part of an area depicting an ambiguous figure is smaller in size than remainder small area seen as figure rest as background.

PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCY
A subtle part of perceptual organisation. Ability to perceive certain characteristics of an object as remaining constant despite variations in the stimuli that provide conflicting information. Such constancy amidst change is indispensable to adjust to the world different aspects of constancy are. SIZE : As an object is moved further away we tend to view it more or less invariant in size. E.g. football player own / far side appear same size despite distance and image on retina.
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 COLOUR : Familiar objects perceived as same colour under varied conditions. Owner of a blue car sees it blue under sunlight / dark. Constancy gives a person a sense of stability in a changing world otherwise chaos. E.g. of a maintenance mechanic choosing correct tool under different conditions.

PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCY - ILLUSONS

Certain circumstances constancy does hold ground. What we see appears to be quiet different from what we know to be true these manifestations are called illusions. An illusion can be understood as a reliable perceptual error. It is stable not due to a hasty or careless exploration or processing of stimuli on our part. Examples of perceptual continuity tuitions fig. P-135

PROCESS OF INTER PRATING

After data received and organized the perceiver interprets or assigns meaning to the information Perception said to take place only after date has been interpreted

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO INTERPRETATION OF DATA

PERCEPTUAL SET : Previously held beliefs influence perception of similar objects. Manager developed a general belief all workers as laze wanting to gain from organisation not give their best. Subsequent perception influenced by this and view behavior according to his mental set.

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 ATTRIBUTION : Process by which an individual assigns causes to the behavior he/she conceives. People interested not only in observing but knowing cause of behavior of an individual in an organisation. Evaluation and reactions to others behavior influenced by perception that other are responsible for their behavior. Production of plant increases, the manager will be evaluated less favorable it attributed to new machine.
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 STREOTYPING : Tendency to assign attributes to someone solely on basis of a category to which that person belongs. Broad stereo types are doctors lawyers etc. Stereo typing is not prejudice which is type of stereotype that refers to change when presented with information that stereotype is inaugurate : stereotype can be helpful but prejudice never helpful. However can also lead to negative or inaccurate consequences - stifle innovation poor utilization of resources.
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 FOUR STEP PROCESS : Categorizing people into groups. Assume all people in same category possess same trait. Form expectations of others and interpret behavior as per our stereotypes. Finally maintaining stereotypes by overestimating stereotype behaviors exhibited by others incorrectly explaining behaviors to others and differentiating minorities.

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 HALO EFFECT : Refers to the tendency of perceiving people in terms of good or bad based on liking. Attributing good qualities to a person liking and ascribing bad qualities to persons not liked. E.g. professor evaluating students communication from VIP or common individual. Halo not always attributing positive qualities,person may be down rated on basis of behavior I.e. horn effect. In organisations halo effect occurs when superiors rate subordinates in appraisal assumes good in one dimension must be good in others. Halo effect may be responsible for finding coelations between ratings given to people on various dimensions. When this occurs resulting evaluation lacks accuracy and quality of evaluation is compromised. Cont...

 PERCEPTUAL CONTEXT :
Context in which an object is placed influences perception.

Org culture and structure provide the primary context in which workers and managers do their perceiving. Thus a memo, verbal order, new policy, takes special meaning when placed in context of a work situation.

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 PERCEPTUAL DEFENCE : Tendency to put up defense when confronted with conflicting unacceptable or threatening stimuli. Defense mechanism put up by receiver may put up. : Out right denial. : Modification of data received. : Change in perception but refusal to change. : Change in perception itself. Whatever form of perceptual defense likely to play a useful role in understanding union management and supervisor subordinate relationships.

IMPLICIT PERSONALITY THEORIES

In judging and making inferences perceptions influenced by belief that certain traits are associated with one another e.g. honesty with hardworking. PROJECTION : See in another person traits they possess. Project own feelings motivates into judgment of others. Particularly true regarding undesirable traits which perceiver possesses, fails to recognize in himself. Person not very energetic may also see others as lazy or lack of achievement due to unwillingness to work hard.

PROCESS OF CHECKING
After data has been received and interpreted perceiver tends to check whether right or wrong One way is introspection or check veracity of interpretation with others. PROCESS OF REACTING : Last phase of perception is reaction. Perceiver will indulge in some action in relation to the perception. Action depends weather favorable or unfavorable A worker responds favorably to motivational intentions of the manager provided understanding of manager is favorable and vice versa.

ATTRIBUTION THEORY HEIDER AND KELLY

Attribution relatively new to the field of OB impacts perception ,leadership, and motivation. Process of attribution is based on perceptions of reality, these perceptions may vary widely among individuals. Theory posits that behaviors of others can be examined on the basis of its. Distinctiveness : Degree of similar behavior in different situations. Consistency : Degree of engaging in same behavior at different time. Consensus : degree to which other people engaging in the same behavior. Cont...

 As a result of various combinations of above three aspects we form impressions our of our attributions and causes of behavior. Behavior is caused internally forces within (ability)or externally, forces in persons environment (task).

ATTRIBUTION PORCESS
Distinc Tiveness High or Low
Observation of Behavior Consistency High or Low Consensus High or Low
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Attribution of Causes Internal / External

 Under conditions of high consistency distinctiveness and high consensus perceiver attribute behavior to external causes. When distinctiveness and consensus low attribute behavior to internal causes.

EXAMPLE
Divya fared poorly in third semester expresses concern to professor. Professor tries to understand possible behavior for poor performance. If does poorly in other courses (low distinctiveness) poorly in earlier tests (high consistency) and other students also do poorly the same test (low consensus) reason attributed to intern al causes (i.e. lack of motivation / poor work habits ). OR High in other courses (high distinctiveness)well in same subject earlier courses (low consistency ) other students also fared poorly in the same test (high consensus) cause can be attributed to external factors (paper setting correction)

RULES OF ATTRIBUTION
Distinctiveness Does the person behave in similar fashion in other situations
Internal attribution high attribution Yes Low distinctiveness On High distinctiveness

Consistency Does the person behave in the same manner at other times
Yes High Consistency On Low consistency

Consensus Do other persons behave in this same manner No Low consensus On High consensus
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 Attribution theory has important implications for managers. If poor performance attributed to internal factors certain strategies can be adopted to improve. Similarly for external factors. One can also make attribution to oneself if one attributes pay raise to hard work than continue to reinforce same.

WHEN PERCEPTION FAILS

Perception is the starting pointof human behavior. Through perception process an individual selects organizes and interprets this forms basis for behavior. Way we perceive people affects way we behave with them. If we stereotype people in a negative way we do not take interest in them, if see only from our frame of reference we would be at constant conflict. Some biases affecting perception are illustrated below.

BIASES OF ATTRIBUTION
STEREO TYPE FRAME OF REFRENCE

EXPECTATIONS

PERECTION
SELECTIVE EXPOSURE PROJECTION

INTEREST

Attribution theory itself an instance of perceptual failure An important byproduct of the theory is identification of biases that distort attrition Cont...

 FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR : Underestimate importance of external factors and overestimate importance of internal factors when making attribution about behaviors of others . Example of a shop floor supervisor who attributes high injury rate to employee carelessness (internal) not possibility of equipment malfunction (external) below.

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 SELF FULFILLIMG PROPHECY : Pygmalion effect is that peoples expectations of beliefs determine their behavior and performance thus serving to make their expectations come true. Another dimension is that our expectations of others person causes that person to act in a way consistent with those expectations e.g. Supervisor expects new employee will not be able to do the job ,this expectation influences supervisors behavior and cause new employee to fare poorly To fight these negative self fulfilling prophecies firms need to fight negative stereotypes ,and avoid first impressions.
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 ILLUSIONS : Perceptions often provides false interpretation of sensory information such cases are known as illusions two types of illusion. Physical processes : Illusions due to distortions of physical conditions e.g. mirages. Cognitive processes : Result in many illusions most common are shape illusions e.g. Poggendorf illusions in which a line disappears at an angle behind a solid figure reappearing at the other side at what seems to be an incorrect position. Incorrect perceptions often lead to personnel and management problem.

PERCEPTIONS AND OB COMPLEX

Perception is a complex cognitive process a unique interpretation of a situation, not exact recording. Recognition of difference between perceptual and world,imp to study of OB. Typical example that subordinate always want promotion, contrary true. Specific applications of perception in organisations are analysed in following / below. Interview suitability of a candidate, how his behavior perceived by others, impression formed initially remains., Hiring new employees the problem of unrealistic expectations. Acquires set of expectations during interview process.
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 Not unusual these to be inflated during selection process. Leads to premature resignations whereas realistic expectation leads to less turnover. REALISTIC JOB EXPECTATIONS : Favorable and unfavorable information of the job. Expectations realistic less disappointment and turnover. PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL : Perception has significant relevance. Assessment can be realistic in quantifiable jobs otherwise subjective evaluation is carries out. Subjective are judge mental and subject to biases. Future in an ore affected.

SUBJECTIVE JUDGEMENTS PERCEPTION BIAS

Attitude vs performance. LOYALTY TO THE ORGANISATION : Loyalty by one decision maker perceived disloyal by other and caring and concerned by others. Not whether employer right in demanding loyalty but they do and are highly judgmental. When assessing loyalty we are involved with persons perception.

DEPENDENCE ON THEORY X OR THEORY Y

Many managerial practices depend on these for assumptions on employees. Theory X assumes man inherently lazy and irresponsible needs controlling authority. Theory Y assumes orientation of man for his creativity and contributions. Both adopt many sets of perceptual processes that influence managerial behavior.

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 IMPRESSIONIST MANAGEMENT : Process involves calculated efforts to influence impression. May use direct by to project oneself favorably or making others feel better about themselves. Impression is management influences others superior better disposed who project betted image . Negative side that true image not disclosed . Even org practice this called Corporate Image.

SUPERVISORY AFFECT ON PERFORMANCE

5 PERFORMANCE SUPERVISORY EXPECTANCY 6 3 MOTIVATION 1 LEADERSHIP

SUB ORDINATES SELF EXPECTANCY

High supervisory expectancy produces better leadership (arrow) which leads employees to high self expectancy (2) higher expectations lead to motivation (3)-boosting performance (4) boosting employers expectancy (5)and also employees (arrows 6 ).

MANAGERS SPECIFICALLY NEED TO DO

Recognize everyone has the potential to increase performance. Instill confidence in oneself. Set high performance goals. Positively reinforce employees for a job done well. Provide constructive feedback when necessary. Help employees advance through organisation. Introduce new employees as if they have outstanding potential. Become aware of personal prejudices and non verbal messages that may discourage others. Encourage employees to visualize successful execution of tasks. Help employees to master skills and tasks. Attribution biases lead to inappropriate man agerial actions incl promotion increments.

MANAGING PERCEPTION PROCESS

Successful managers understand importance of perception as influencing factor on behavior and act accordingly. Tools possessed by managers skilled in perception processes. POSSESES HIGH LEVEL OF SELF AWARENESS Individual needs experience and expectation can affect perceptions. Applies correction when such tendencies a identified.
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SEEK VERIFICATION FROM DIFFERENT SOURCES Minimizes biases of personal perception by seeking others viewpoint. These insights used to gain additional perspective on problems. BE EMPATHETIC Different people view same situation differently Rise above personal impression and see others point of view INFLUENCE WRONG PERCEPTION OF OTHERS People act based on perceptions. Rectify wrong perceptions to interpret work situations correctly. Cont...

AVOID PERCEPTUAL DISTORTIONS THAT BIAS VIEWS OF PEOPLE / SITUATIONS : Stereotype or halo effects distort views or situations Are self disciplined / self aware to minimize distortion AVOID INAPPROORATE ATTRIBUTION : Everyone has a tendency to explain way / how events happiness. Successful manager careful to establish real reasons and avoid in appropriate actions. DIVERSITY MANAGEMENT PROGRAMMES : With globalization diversity management assumes importance. Challenge is to leverage this diversity Minimize perceptual and behavioral problems that tend to accompany heterogeneity.
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UNOW YOUR SELF : Apply the Johari window to know real self Powerful way to minimize biases is to know and become more aware of ones values beliefs and prejudices. SOCIAL PERCEPTION : Forces of combining integrating and inter prating information about others to gain accurate understanding of them same as perception but focus is on people.

SUMMARY
Perception is the process of receiving stimuli selecting grouping understanding and reacting to external stimuli. Perception is influenced by the object perceiver and situation. Perceptual process comprises five important stages Receiving Selecting Organizing Interpreting Reacting to stimuli Early stage in perceptual process is influenced by several factors.
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 Attribution is a collorary of perception a process to attributing causes to behavior of others . Attribution has implications for perception leadership and motivation. Perception plays spoil sport with human behavior biases like stereo typing halo effect projection attribution and self full filing prophecy . Perception has implications in such areas like employee selection training performance evaluation and deciding on appropriate managerial practices . Being an important variable in individual behavior perception needs to be managed effectively. Social perception is the process of understanding people accurately.