BIOMOLECULES IN CELLS

(Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins & Nucleic Acids)

Carbohydrates

Includes sugar, glycogen, starches and cellulose Represent only 2-3% of the total body weight In humans and animals, carbohydrates function mainly as a source of chemical energy for generating ATP needed to drive metabolic reaction ATP needed to drive metabolic reaction Composed of C, H & O atom Most carbohydrates, for each C atom, there are two H and one O

Carbohydrates
Three major groups based on size : 1. Monosaccharides - A monomer of sugar moiety
2.

Oligosaccharides A polymer of 2 to 10 sugar moieties (Dissacharide, Trisaccharide, .) Polysaccharides- A polymer of 10 or more monosaccharides (Homo & Heteropolysaccharides)

3.

Monosaccharides

Smallest carbohydrates or simple sugars Example : glucose (blood sugar) & fructose (fruit sugar), galactose, mannose Important energy sources for many body cells Monomer for larger carbohydrates building blocks of carbohydrates

Disaccharides

Formed when two monosaccharides join Examples Glucose+fructose=Sucrose(table sugar) Glucose+glucose= Maltose Glucose+galactose= Lactose Can be split into smaller, simpler molecules through hydrolysis Artificial sweeteners to limit sugar consumption for medical reason, avoid calories that might result in weight gain, mush sweeter than sucrose but fewer calories & do not cause tooth decay

Polysaccharides

Contain many monosaccharides bound in long chains Glycogen & starch polysaccharide of glucose (homopolysaccahrides) Glycogen is broken down into glucose molecules which can be used as energy sources Cellulose plant polysaccharide Chondroitin sulphate, heparin, chitin, (heteropolysaccahrides)

Lipids

Greasy or oily nonpolar compounds Substances that dissolve in nonpolar solvents, such as alcohol or acetone, but not in polar solvent such as water Composed mainly of C, H & O, minor component P & N Functions Energy storage Membrane structure Protecting against desiccation (drying out). Insulating against cold. Absorbing shocks. Regulating cell activities by hormone actions. Examples : fats, phospholipids & steroids

Lipids (Fats)

Fats important energy storage molecules ; they also pad & insulate the body
Building blocks of fats are glycerol & fatty acids Most common type of fat molecules triglycerides

Fatty Acids
Saturated & unsaturated fat
Monounsaturated & polyunsaturated

Non Essential Fatty acids- oleic acid, Palmitoliec acid, stearic acid
Essential Fatty Acids- Linoleic, Linolenic & Arachidonic Acid

Lipids (Phospholipids)

One of the fatty acids bound to glycerol is replaced by a molecule containing phosphorus Hydrophilic (water loving, polar)& hydrophobic (water fearing, nonpolar)

Lipids (Steroids)

Structure differs considerably from triglycerides

Have four rings of carbon atoms

isopentenyl pyrophosphate squalene

acetic acid

sex hormones

Body cell synthesize other steroids from cholesterol

HO cholesterol

glucocorticoid hormones mineralocorticoid hormones bile acids

Proteins

Protein has a large number of important functions in the human body In fact, the human body is about 45% protein. Its an essential macromolecule without which our bodies would be unable to repair, regulate, or protect themselves. Large molecules that contain C, H, O & N, some contain S Normal lean adult body -12-18% protein Much more complex in structure than carbohydrates or lipids Have may roles in human body & largely responsible for the structure of body tissues Enzymes are protein that speed up most biochemical reactions

Functions of Proteins
Protein has a range of essential functions in the body: 1. Required for building and repair of body tissues (including muscle) 2. Enzymes, hormones, and many immune molecules are proteins 3. Essential body processes such as water balancing, nutrient transport, and muscle contractions require protein to function. 4. Protein is a source of energy. 5. Protein helps keep skin, hair, and nails healthy. 6. Protein, like most other essential nutrients, is absolutely crucial for overall good health.

Protein Structure

Amino Acids the Building Blocks

Protein-Primary Structure

Unique sequence of amino acids in a protein Slight change in primary structure can alter function Determined by genes Condensation synthesis reactions form the peptide bonds between amino acids

Protein-Secondary Structure

Repeated folding of proteins polypeptide backbone

stabilized by H bonds between peptide linkages in the proteins backbone 2 types, alpha helix, beta pleated sheets

Protein-Tertiary Structure

Irregular contortions of a protein due to bonding between R groups Weak bonds:

H bonding between polar side chains ionic bonding between charged side chains hydrophobic and van der Waals interactions disulfide bridges form strong covalent linkages

Strong bonds:

Bonds Involved in Protein Structure

Protein-Quaternary Structure

Results from interactions among 2 or more polypeptides

Factors That Determine Protein Conformation

Occurs during protein synthesis within cell Depends on physical conditions of environment pH, temperature, salinity, etc. Change in environment may lead to denaturation of protein Denatured protein is biologically inactive Can renature if primary structure is not lost

Nucleic Acids : DNA & RNA

First discovered in the nuclei of cells Large molecules contain C, H, O, N & P Two types : DNA & RNA

Nitrogenous Base
DNA contains four different nitrogenous bases : 1. Adenine (A) 2. Thymine (T) 3. Cytosine (C) 4. Guanine (G) A & G large, double-ring bases called purines T & C smaller, single-ring bases called pyrimidines

Nucleosides

Pentose Sugar & Phosphate Group Five-carbon sugar called deoxyribose attach to each base in DNA Five carbon sugar ribose attach to each base in RNA

Nucleotides

Both DNA & RNA consist of basic building blocks called nucleotides Nucleic acids are made up of a chain of repeating of monomers called nucleotides

1. 2. 3.

Each nucleotide composed of three parts:

Nitrogenous base Pentose sugar (monosaccharide) Phosphate group

Nuceotides in DNA

DNA

Genetic materials (hereditary information) of human cells & copies of DNA are transferred to next generation
Contain information that determines the structure of proteins In human, each gene is a segment of a DNA molecule Our genes determine the traits we inherit & by controlling protein synthesis they regulate most of activities that take place in body cells throughout our lives

DNA Structure - Double Helix

DNA has two strands of nucleotides joined together to form a twisted ladder-like structure called a double helix Watson-Crick double helix
Each time DNA is copied, as when living cells divide to increase their number, the two strands unwind Each strand serves as template or mold to construct a new strand

Double Helical DNA- Watson & Crick Model

RNA

Structurally related to DNA Relays instructions from the genes to guide each cell synthesis of proteins from amino acid Single-stranded, sugar is pentose ribose, pyrimidine base Uracil (U) instead of thymine (T) 3 types of RNA : mRNA, tRNA & rRNA

To Summarise -Biomolecules

Possible Questions
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Classification of Carbohydrates with examples Classification of Lipids with examples Difference between a fat and oil Functions of Carbohydrates, lipids and proteins Structure of Proteins Types of Aminoacids and their biological importance Types of Nucleic acids and their structure and functions