1

CHAPTER - 06
PIPELINE DESIGN
2
BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATION
1. SAFETY
2. SECURITY OF SUPPLY
3. COST EFFECTIVENESS
4. REGULATORY AND LEGAL
COMPLIANCE
3
PIPELINE LEGISLATION
1. In the USA, the Department of
Transportation issues a range of
Pipeline Safety Regulations. These
regulation rely heavily on ASME
B31 Standards.
2. In Indonesia, we should find
whether we have the regulation or
just adopt the ASME B31.
4
1. ANSI B31.4 : Liquid Petroleum
Transportation

2. ANSI B31.8 : Gas Transmission and
Distribution Piping System

3. IGE/TD/1 : For Methane gas only
4. BS 8010 ( in 1993)

5. ISO 13623 : International Pipeline
standard, covering oil and gas lines,
currently being reviewed by the Pipeline
industry world-wide.
PIPELINE DESIGN CODE
5
OIL PIPELINES :
1. No account is taken of population
density in the location of the pipelines.
2. There is no specified distance to
occupied buildings.
3. You can generally build an oil pipeline
with a high design factor (0.72) in most
location.
PIPELINE DESIGN CODE
6
GAS PIPELINES :
1. Account is taken of population
density in the location of the
pipelines.
2. Minimum distance from occupied
buildings is specified.
3. Design factor is lowered in
populated areas (0.3 in UK and 0.4
in USA)
PIPELINE DESIGN CODE
7
CLIEN T PROJECT
MAN AGE R
CLIE NT
PRO JE CT
EN GIN EE R
DES IGN ER
PROJECT
ENG INE ER
DES IGN ER
PROJECT
MAN AGE R
DE SI GNE R-
QUALI TY
SYS TE M
DE SI GNE R-
QUALI TY
AUD ITO R
DI SCI PLI NE
EN GI NEE R
CA D
DES IGN
TECH NI CAL
S PECI ALIS T
O THE R
S TAFF
QUALITY PLAN
8
ROUTE
Environmental & Safety
Consideration
QUALITY ASSURANCE
Plan
SERVICE CONDITION
Pressure, etc
DESIGN FACTOR
Location and
Pressure
DESIGN CRITERIA
Pressure, Temp,
Stress, etc
CHOSEN
DESIGN
MATERIALS
Material and Wall
thickness
INTERNAL CORROSION
CROSSING
TERMINAL &
STATIONS
TESTING AND
COMMISSIONING
EXTERNAL
CORROSION
DESIGN FLOW-CHART
9
TYPICAL ORGANIZATION OF
DETAILED DESIGN
PROJECT SPECIALISTS
MATERIALS
CATHODIC PROTECTION
SAFETY
ENVIRONMENT
CIVIL
PIPELINE
AND PIPING
CLIENT PROJECT
MANAGER
PROJECT
MANAGER
PROJECT
ENGINEER
PROCESS
SYSTEM
10
STEP-1: SUBSTANCE
CLASSIFICATION
Assessment of the hazard potential of the substance
in the pipeline. This is depend on what code we
used. BS 8010 covers most substances, and IGE
TD/1 Specializes in Natural Gas.
1. Category A - Typically water based fluid
2. Category B - Flammable and toxic substances which are
liquids at amb. Temp and atmospheric pressure condition.
3. Category C - Non Flammable substance s which are gases
at amb. Temp and atmospheric pressure condition.
4. Category D - Flammable and toxic substances which are
gases at ambient temp. and atmospheric pressure
conditions and are conveyed as gases or liquids, eg.
Methane.
11
1. Pipelines carrying Category A substances
(water) are not limited in this way
2. Pipelines carrying Category B substances
are similarly not limited, but may require
a safety evaluation or extra protection.
3. The location of Category C and D
substances pipeline is dependant on the
population density along the route. This
then dictates that the operating stress
levels and proximity of buildings.
STEP-2: LOCATION CLASSIFICATION
GENERAL
12
1. To determine the number of buildings
intended for human occupancy for an
onshore pipeline, lay out a zone of 1/4
mile wide along the route of the pipeline
with the pipeline on the center line of
this zone, and divide the pipeline into
random sections 1 mile in length.
2. Count the number of building intended
for human occupancy within each 1 mile
zone.
STEP-2: LOCATION CLASSIFICATION
GENERAL
13
1. Class 1: Areas with a population
< 2.5 persons/hectare
2. Class 2: Areas with a population
>= 2.5 persons/hectare, and
which may be heavily developed
(shops)
3. Class 3: Central areas of towns,
with high population, building
density, etc.
STEP-2: LOCATION CLASSIFICATION
BS 8010
14
Location Class 1: is any 1
mile section has 10 or fewer
building intended for human
occupancy, such as water
land, desert, mountains,
grazing land, farmland, and
sparsely populated area.
STEP-2: LOCATION CLASSIFICATION
ASME B31.8
15
Location Class 2: is any 1 mile
section has more than 10 but
fewer than 46 buildings
intended for human
occupancy, such as fringe
areas around cities and towns,
industrial areas, ranch or
country estates, etc.
STEP-2: LOCATION CLASSIFICATION
ASME B31.8
16
O Location Class 3: is any 1 mile
section has 46 or more buildings
intended for human occupancy,
except when Location Class 4
prevails. This class for suburban
housing development, shopping
centers, residential areas,
industrial areas and other not
meeting location class 4
requirement.
STEP-2: LOCATION CLASSIFICATION
ASME B31.8
17
Location Class 4: includes areas
where multistory buildings are
prevalent, and where traffic is
heavy or dense and where there
maybe numerous other utilities
underground. Multistory means
4 or more floors above ground
including the first or ground
floor.
STEP-2: LOCATION CLASSIFICATION
ASME B31.8
18
It is of interest to note that a study of fires following a gas pipeline
failure showed a clear trend between burn radius and pressure, but
no correlation with a pipe diameter.
The study plotted the radius of the burn area around a pipeline
against the pipeline pressure, and concluded that an upper bound:
Upper Bound Burn Radius for A Gas Pipeline
Pressure Radius
260 psi 92 ft (28.1 m)
987 psi 610 ft (186 m)
This table gives a simple Rule of Thumb for safe distance (ignoring
wind speeds, terrain, etc), for example, a pipeline at a pressure 1000
psi would cause burn damage up to a distance of ~ 200 m either side
of corridor, if it failed and the gas ignited.
BURN RADIUS WHEN PIPELINE FAIL
19
TABLE: LOCATION CLASS vs
DESIGN FACTOR
THIS TABLE BELOW IS FROM ASME B31.8 WITH ADDITIONAL INFORMATION INPUT
FROM BS 8010
LOCATION CLASS
LOCATION CLASS LOCATION CLASS
LOCATION CLASS
ASME B31.8 BS 8010 B31.8 (MAX) BS 8010 (MAX)
1. DIVISION 1 1 0.8 0.72
1. DIVISION 2 1 0.72 0.72
2 1 0.6 0.72
3 2 0.5 0.3 to 0.72
*1
4 3 0.4 0.3
*2
TABLE 1 LOCATION CLASS:
*
1
VARIANCE TO BE JUSTIFIED BY SAFETY EVALUATION
*
2
MAXIMUM PRESSURE LIMITED TO 7 BARG.
20
The Distance between a normally
occupied
building and a pipeline is given in BS
8010 as:
O Category A Substances: No
stipulated requirement.
O Category B Substances: the designed
must take account of access during
construction, maintenance
requirements, access for emergency
services, etc., before specifying a
proximity.
STEP-3: DISTANCE TO OCCUPIED
BUILDING
21
Category C and D Substances (excluding
Methane): For pipelines with a design
factor not exceeding 0.72 the minimum
distance is:
= Q [ D^2/32000+D/160+11]*[p/32+1.4]
where D = Outside pipe diameter (mm),
P is max. operating pressure (bar)
Q is substance:
ex. Ammonia, Q = 2.5, NGL, Q =
1.25
STEP-3: DISTANCE TO OCCUPIED
BUILDING
22
We want to ensure that our pipeline does not fail due to:
E BURST
E STRUCTURAL COLLAPS
E FATIGUE
E FRACTURE
We do not want our pipeline to become unserviceable
due to:
E OVALISATION
E DISPLACEMENTS
Therefore we control our stresses below a DESIGN
LEVEL or DESIGN FACTOR. This factors vary in codes.
DESIGN CRITERIA
23
1. It is important to understand the origins
and meaning of these Design factors:
2. First, the design factor is a simple
engineering way of ensuring that your
working stresses in your pipeline are well
below the yield or ultimate tensile strength of
the pipeline material.
3. The Design Factor depend on the Location
Class.
4. The Design Factors vary in the CODES.
5. The Design factor is HOOP STRESS over SMYS
DESIGN FACTOR
24
DESIGN FACTOR - ASME B31.8
1. Class 1 Div.1 : 0.80
2. Class 1 Div.2, 0 - 10 buildings : 0.72
3. Class 2 11 - 45 buildings : 0.60
4. Class 3 46+ dwellings : 0.50
5. Class 4 Multistory buildings : 0.40
6. Originally, a corridor width of 0.5 mile
wide (now 0.25), with the pipeline at
the center, was used to determine the
population density at risk.
25
1. Most of pipelines around the world have a
maximum design factor of 0.72, although
there are some pipelines operating at
higher factors.
2. This 0.72 design factor originates in North
America, from the American Pipeline
Standard ASME B31. A 72 % SMYS design
stress is additionally based on
conservative assumptions, e.g. minimum
wall thickness.
THE 0.72 DESIGN FACTOR
26
1. The 72 % SMYS limit originates from
1930s in the USA, and was based on the
mill testing of pipelines.
2. The mill test was typically 90% SMYS.
Operators agreed that a 1.25 safety
factor on this was reasonable, therefore
the 72% SMYS limit was created and
appeared in the American Code ASME
B31.8 in the 1960s. It has no structural
significance, and is an historical limit.
THE 0.72 DESIGN FACTOR
27
1. The 0.72 design factor was based on the
use of a safety margin of 1.25 on a
hydrotest to 90% SMYS.
2. Using the same logic (I.e. safety factor
1.25) pipelines hydrotested to 100% SMYS
would be able to operate at 80% SMYS. In
the 1980s, the ASME B31.8 committee
considered > 72 % SMYS pipelines, and
1990 addenda to 1989 ASME B31.8 Edition
included provisions for the operation of
pipelines up to 80% SMYS.
THE 0.80 DESIGN FACTOR
28
1. However, US Department of
Transportation Regulations usually
restrict the maximum design factor in
oil and gas lines to 72 % SMYS.
2. This restriction was problematic for
some lines in the USA, that were
operating at above 72%, and in some
cases 80% SMYS when it came into
force.
THE 0.80 DESIGN FACTOR
29
E The use of a design factor of 0.72 will ensure
reasonable safety factor ( see figure next
page).
E For example, a pre-service hydrotest to 100%
SMYS means that a 72% SMYS pipeline has a
safety factor of 100/72 on pressure.
E This safety factor is needed to account for :
E uncertainties in pipe supplies (e.g. wall
thickness)
E Uncertainties in pressure (e.g.
overpressures)
E Most important - the inevitable
deterioration of the pipeline with time.
INHERENT SAFETY FACTOR
30
SAFETY MARGIN IN A
PIPELINE
0.72
1
1.3
DESIGN HYDROTEST FAILURE
DESIGN FACTOR
Safety factor
based on failure
Safety factor based
on hydrotest
31
1. PROTECTION
2. CROSSING
3. DESIGN TEMPERATURE
4. CORROSION ALLOWANCE
5. VALVE SPACING
6. OVER PRESSURE
7. FATIGUE
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
32
Pipelines can be protected to reduce the
risk of pipeline damage.
Types of protection are:
Adding Concrete Protective Coating.
Encasing with Steel Pipe of Larger
Diameter
Steel mesh or slab coverings or
surrounds
O Lowering the line to a greater depth
O Increasing the Wall Thickness
1. PIPELINES PROTECTION
33
1. Depth of Cover is also an effective method of
protection. IGE TD/1 requires a minimum depth of
cover 1.1 m, whereas BS 8010 requires minimum of
900 mm for pipelines in agricultural areas. Research
work showed that the likelihood of damage is
reduces by a factor of 10 as the depth of cover is
increased from 1.1 m to 2.2 m.
2. Increased Pipe Wall Thickness offers protection
against damage. For example very few (5%) of
excavating machinery used in suburban areas will be
able to penetrate 11.9 mm wall.
3. Pipelines protected by sleeves are no longer popular
due to difficulty in maintenance, and the possibility
of corrosion and difficulty of finding it.
1. PIPELINES PROTECTION
34
1. When a pipeline crosses, or is crossed by, a road then
it may be subject to additional forces. The design of
crossings must take into account the daily and
seasonal traffic densities and the risk of interference
in this type of area.
2. Road crossing must be installed by open cut, boring
or tunneling methods. Boring is the most popular as
it is cheap and mechanized. Tunneling is expensive
and mainly manual, but may be necessary in e.g.
hard rock. Open cuts are used on little used roads for
convenience and low cost.
3. The major pipeline codes used in UK (BS 8010 Part
2.8, IGE TD1 contain these requirement.
2. ROAD CROSSING
35
2. RAILWAY CROSSING
1. Rail Crossings can be designed in the
same way as road crossings, although
the distance from the top of the
sleeve/pipe to the rail surface is usually
deeper than required for roads (in BS
8010 the distance increases from 1.2 m
(road) to between 1.4 and 1.8 m.
2. River or estuary crossings are usually
designed as submarine pipelines.
36
1. Pipeline design must take into account the
temperature of the environment and the
product.
2. The temperature will effect both operation
and material properties.
3. BS 8010 does not limit on design
temperature, but IGE TD/1 recognizes that
most buried pipelines in the UK will operate
at 5 Deg. C and therefore require the pipe
material to be tested for adequate toughness
properties at 0 Deg. C.
3. DESIGN TEMPERATURE
37
1. If a pipeline is carrying a non-corrosive
substance, an internal corrosion allowance is
not needed.
2. Similarly, if both an anti-corrosion coating
system and a cathodic protection system are
installed , no external corrosion allowance is
needed.
3. Where internal or external corrosion is
expected, a study must be conducted to
calculate the necessary corrosion allowance,
which is then added to the design thickness.
4. CORROSION ALLOWANCE
38
1. It is common sense to place isolating valves at the
beginning and end of a pipeline, and at intervals
between these two valves to limit the extent of
possible leak, and to assist in maintenance.
2. Similarly, valves need to be easily accessible, but
away from normally buildings and be protected
from vandalism.
3. The spacing of valves is usually linked to Class
Location, in pipeline codes. This suggest that the
spacing is based on environ mental and safety
criteria, that minimizes damage and injuries.
4. In BS 8010, valves must be no more than 16 km
apart for Category B substances.
5. Category C and D, are about 16 km
5. VALVE SPACING
39
1. Changes in flow, or the sudden closure of
the valve, will cause pressure surges.
2. Pipeline must be protected from these
surges (by, for example, a relief valve).
3. This surges are inevitable. Most design
codes allow them to exceed the design
pressure, providing they are controlled.
4. Most codes allow 10% overpressures.
5. BS 8010 limit to 10 % of the internal
design pressure.
6. But duration limited to 5 hours at any one
time or 20 hours per day.
6. OVERPRESSURES
40
6. OVER PRESSURES (contd)
FAILURE STRESS OF DEFECT FREE PIPELINE SAFETY MARGIN
ON FAILURE
1 SMYS OF PIPELINE
SAFETY MARGIN
HYDROTEST PRESSURE SAFETY MARGIN ON SMYS
ON HYDROTEST
0.8
ALLOWANCE
FOR SURGES
0.6
0.4
0.2
P
I
P
E
L
I
N
E

H
O
O
P

S
T
R
E
S
S

(
%

S
M
Y
S
)

PIPELINE OPERATION (TIME)
ALLOWANCE FOR SURGE
DESIGN PRESSURE
41
1. Pipeline pressures are rarely constant
2. In oil lines, they can varying as different batches are
sent down the pipeline.
3. In gas lines, the pressure can vary due to customer
demand.
4. Pressure cycling in pipeline can cause minor defects
to grow to a critical size, and cause failure. These
defects may have survived the pre-service
hydrotest.
5. BS 8010 and IGE TD/1 have guidance on fatigue. A
limit of 15000 cycles of maximum daily variation in
hoop stress of 125 N/mm
2
is quoted. Smaller and
larger stress ranges are allowed longer fatigue lives
than 15,000.
7. FATIGUE CONSIDERATION
42
TRANSMISSION PIPELINES ARE TESTED BEFORE GOING
INTO SERVICE, BY PRESSURIZING THEM WITH WATER.
NATURAL GAS, OR AIR, IS NOT USED AT HIGH PRESSURE
BECAUSE THE ENERGY CONTENT OF A PNEUMATIC TEST
IS MANY TIMES GREATER THAN THAT OF HYDRAULIC
TEST.
HYDROSTATIC TESTING OF PIPELINES STARTED IN
1950s in USA for
CHECKING FOR LEAKS
PROVING THE STRENGTH OF THE PIPELINE
REMOVING DEFECT ON CERTAIN SIZE
BLUNTING DEFECTS THAT SURVIVE
REDUCING RESIDUAL STRESS
WARM PRESTRESSES DEFECT THAT SURVIVE.
HYDROSTATIC TESTING
43
HISTORICALLY, PIPELINES, PRESSURE VESSEL, PIPING
HAVE BEEN TESTED FROM 1.1 TO 1.5 TIMES THE
DESIGN PRESSURE.
THE CONCEPT OF AHIGH LEVEL TEST, OR TEST TO
YIELD WAS INTRODUCED INTO THE UK AND USA IN
1967, WHEN IT WAS RECOGNIZED THAT TESTING TO
80% OR 90% SMYS WOULD NOT REVEAL DEFECTS
THAT MAY CAUSE FAILURE DURING OPERATION.
WHERE THE PIPELINE CROSSES RIVERS, ROADS,
RAILWAYS AND OTHER ACCESS ROUTES, THE THICKER
WALL SECTIONS HERE MAY NEED TO BE TESTED
SEPARATELY. THIS MAY BE DONE BEFORE
CONSTRUCTION OR SEGREGATED FROM THE MAIN
LINE AND TESTED IN ISOLATION.
HYDROSTATIC TESTING
44
BS 8010 GIVES THE FOLLOWING TEST
REQUIREMENTS :
THE HYDROTEST SHOULD BE THE LOWER OF 150 %
THE MAXIMUM OPERATING PRESSURE, OR THAT
PRESSURE THAT WILL INDUCE A HOOP STRESS OF
90% SMYS.
CATEGORY C SUBSTANCE PIPELINES DESIGNED TO
OPERATE AT DESIGN FACTOR OF NOT MORE THAN
0.3 CAN BE PNEUMATICALLY TESTED AT AMBIENT
TEMPERATURE. THE MAXIMUM DESIGN FACTOR FOR
PNEUMATIC TEST MUST NOT EXCEED 0.375, NOT BE
LESS THAN 1.25 TIMES THE MAXIMUM OPERATING
PRESSURE.
HIGH LEVEL TESTING CAN BE CARRIED OUT, AND
THE TEST PRESSURE SHOULD BE 114% (SEAM
WELDED PIPE) AND 102% SEAMLESS SMYS.
HYDROSTATIC TESTING
45
SMALL LEAKS CAN BE OFTEN DIFFICULT TO
DETECT. A SMALL CHANGE IN WATER/PIPE
TEMPERATURE MAY GIVE THE APPEARANCE OF
A LEAK. STANDARD RULE OF THUMB USE THE
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT TO
COMPENSATE FOR THIS EFFECT. THE PIPELINE
TEST TEMPERATURE MAY BE AFFECTED BY
ALTITUDE, RIVER CROSSINGS, EXPOSED
VERSUS BURIED, WATER TEMPERATURE
GRADIENT ETC. AIR, EITHER TRAPPED OR
ENTRAINED, WILL ALSO AFFECT THE PRESSURE
VOLUME RECORDING.
HYDROSTATIC TESTING
46
IF THE DECREASE IN PRESSURE VOLUME IS
NOT ATTRIBUTABLE TO THE EFFECT DESCRIBED
ABOUT IT MAY BE NECESSARY TO RE-TEST
SHORTER SECTIONS OF THE PIPELINE TO
ESTABLISH AND LOCATE A LEAK.
AFTER TESTING IS USUAL TO EXPEL THE WATER
USING COMPRESSED AIR OR IN THE CASE OF
LIQUID LINES, THE PRODUCT THATWILL
NORMALLY FLOW. FURTHER DRYING, MAINLY
FOR GAS PIPELINE, IS ACHIEVED VIA THE USE
OF PURPOSE-BUILT PIGS, HEATED AIR,
VACUUM, INERT GAS, OR LIQUID CHEMICAL
SCAVENGERS RUN AS SLUGS.
HYDROSTATIC TESTING
47
COMPARISON OF ENERGY LEVELS :
PNEUMATIC vs HYDRAULIC TESTING
where: Vessel Details & Assumption:
* P = Pressure in Vessel (Mpa) * P = Test Pressure = 48 Mpa
* V = Vessel Volume (m^3) * Internal Diameter = 1700 mm
* Po = Ambient Pressure (=0.1 Mpa) * Thickness = 149 mm
* e = Poisson's ratio (=0.229) * Length = 16700 mm
* K = Internal Diameter/External * V = 37.91 m^3
* E = Young Modulus (=210 x 10^3Mpa) * Assume strain energy content in both
* Mb = Bulk Modulus of Water (=2.05 x 10^3 Mpa) cases is same.
* U = U = (P^2.V.(3(1-2e)+2K^2(1+e)))/(2.E(K^2-1)) * Perfect gas laws apply.
25 x 10
8
TOTAL ENERGY =
W + U
PNEUMATIC
TESTING
HYDRAULIC
TESTING
Wa = P. V log P/Pa 1.12 x 10
12
4.9 x 10
6
2300 : 1 1.12 x 10
12
Ww = Vo (P-Po)/2Mb 21.3 x 10
6
4.9 x 10
6
4.1 : 1
ENERGY CONTENT
of Air, Wa, or
Water, Ww
(JOULES)
W (JOULES)
STRAIN ENERGY
IN WALLS, U
(JOULES)
W:U
RATIO OF ENERGIES, PNEUMATIC TO HYDROLIC =
450 : 1
48
PIPE TESTING : SAFETY MARGIN
0.72
1
1.3
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
DESIGN HYDROTEST FAILURE
D
E
SI
G
N
FA
C
T
O
R
49
g The tensile properties of line pipe material are measured
as the Yield Strength and the Ultimate Tensile Strength.
g The Pipe Manufacturer ensures the strength of our pipe is
above certain specified minimum levels.
g These specified minimum levels are:
g SMYS : SPECIFIED MINIMUM YIELD STRENGTH is the
minimum yield strength prescribed by the
specification under which pipe is purchased from the
manufacturer.
g SMTS : SPECIFIED MINIMUM TENSILE STRENGTH is
the minimum tensile strength prescribed by the
specification under which pipe is purchased from the
manufacturer.
g Our actual Yield Strength and Tensile Strength are
above those specified.
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
50
1. Coefficient of Thermal Expansion: The Linear
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion for CARBON and LOW
ALLOY HIGH TENSILE STEEL may be taken as:

6.5 x 10
-6
in./in./
o
F ---- for T <= 250
o
F

11.7 x 10
-6
mm/mm/
o
C ---- for T <= 120
o
C

2. Modulus Elasticity: Flexibility calculations shall be
based on the modulus of elasticity at ambient
temperature.
3. Poissons Ratio: shall be taken as 0.3 for Steel
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
51
Ensuring a Design Stress is Below
Critical Material Properties
800
700
600
500
YIELD STRENGTH
400
300
200
100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
WE DESIGN OUR STRUCTURES IN THIS REGION, BUT THE FAIL IN
THIS REGION, AT MUCH HIGHER STRESSES AND STRAINS.
ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH
FAILURE
STRAIN, %
STRESS, /mm^2
YIELD
STRAIN
52
DESIGN STRESSES
STRAIN, %
S
T
R
E
S
S
,

%

S
M
Y
S

P
I
P
E


B
U
L
G
I
N
G


L
I
M
I
T

P
I
P
E

B
U
R
S
T


L
I
M
I
T

S
T
R
A
I
N


B
A
S
E
D


D
E
S
I
G
N

P
I
P
E


C
I
R
C
U
L
A
R
I
T

Y

L
I
M
I
T

PIPE IS NOT
SERVICEABLE
PIPE IS NOT
SAVE
D
E
S
I
G
N


L
I
M
I
T

H
Y
D
R
O
T
E
S
T


L
I
M
I
T

N
O
N

L
I
N
I
E
R


E
L
A
S
T
I
C


L
I
M
I
T

53
1. TRENCH CONDITION: Called
also as BURIED PIPELINE . This
consist of excavating a ditch and
placing a pipe within the trench.
2. EMBANKMENT CONDITION: this
consist of laying the pipe on the
natural ground and building an
embankment over the pipe.
PIPELINE INSTALLATION
54
RESTRAINED LINES : This is for
portion of the piping system
that called as Buried Pipeline.
UN-RESTRAINED LINES : This is
the portion of pipeline which is
aboveground and right before
the pipeline going into the
trench.
PIPELINE AS A SYSTEM
55
1. THE CALCULATION WILL BE DEPEND
ON WHAT TYPE OF PORTION OF
PIPELINE TO BE CALCULATED SINCE
THERE ARE FUNDAMENTAL
DIFFERENCES IN LOADING
CONDITIONS.
2. THIS IS WILL AFFECT TO DIFFERENT
LIMITS ON ALLOWABLE
LONGITUDINAL EXPANSION STRESS.
PIPELINE AS A SYSTEM
56
THE NET LONGITUDINAL
COMPRESSIVE STRESS DUE TO THE
COMBINED EFFECTS OF
TEMPERATURE RISE AND FLUID
PRESSURE:



RESTRAINED LINES
S
L
= E (T
2
- T
1
) - S
h
57
gSTRESS DUE TO EXPANSION :



UN-RESTRAINED LINES
S
E
= S
b

2
+ 4 S
t

2

Z
Where :
S
E
= Stress due to expansion, Psi.
S
b
= Equivalent Bending Stress (in-Lb)
S
t
= Torsional moment, in-Lb
Z = Section Modulus of pipe, in
3

58
1. NOMINAL WALL THICKNESS = t
n

t
n
= t + A
where :
t
n
=nominal wall thickness satisfying
requirements of pressure and
allowances
t = pressure design wall thickness as
calculated in inches (mm) in accordance
with para. 404.1.2 at next page.
A = sum of allowance for threading, grooving,
corrosion, increased wall
thickness.
NOMINAL WALL THICKNESS, t
n
ASME B31.4
59
t = P
i
D / 2 S
where :
t = Internal Pressure Design Wall Thickness
P
i
= Internal Design Pressure, Psi.
D = Outside Diameter of Pipe, inch.
S = Applicable Allowable Stress Value, Psi in
accordance with para. 402.3.1 a, b, c or d.
INTERNAL DESIGN PRESSURE WALL
THICKNESS, t (ASME B31.4)
60
NOMINAL WALL THICKNESS, t FOR A
GIVEN DESIGN PRESSURE or THE DESIGN
PRESSURE FOR STEEL GAS PIPING SYSTEM
:
P

= 2S t F E T
D

NOMINAL WALL THICKNESS, t

ASME B31.8
61
where :
P = DESIGN PRESSURE, PSIG
S = SMYS, PSI
D = NOMINAL OUTSIDE DIAMETER, IN.
t = NOMINAL WALL THICKNESS,
IN
F = DESIGN FACTOR
E = LONGITUDINAL JOINT FACTOR
T = TEMPERATURE DERATING FACTOR
NOMINAL WALL THICKNESS, t

ASME B31.8
62
1. PRIMARY STRESSES
caused by SUSTAINED
LOAD , such as pressure,
weight.
2. SECONDARY STRESSES
caused by THERMAL
EXPANSION.
BASIC CONCEPT OF STRESS
63
I. NORMAL STRESS
LONGITUDINAL STRESS
CAUSED BY INTERNAL FORCES
DUE TO INTERNAL PRESSURE
BENDING STRESS
HOOP STRESS
RADIAL STRESS
II. SHEAR STRESS
PRIMARY STRESSES
64
NORMAL STRESSES ARE THOSE ACTING
IN A DIRECTION NORMAL TO THE
FACE OF THE CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
OF THE MATERIAL AND MAY BE
EITHER TENSILE OR COMPRESSIVE
IN NATURE. THIS MAY BE APPLIED
IN MORE THAN ONE DIRECTION AND
MAY DEVELOP FROM A NUMBER OF
DIFFERENT TYPES OF LOADS.
I. NORMAL STRESSES
65
LONGITUDINAL STRESS (S
L
) is the normal
stress acting parallel to the longitudinal
axis of the pipe, caused by an internal
force axially within the pipe :
S
L
= F
ax
/A
m
--- PSI

Where:
F
ax
= Internal axial force , lb.
A
m
= Metal cross-sectional area of pipe,
in
2
.
1. LONGITUDINAL STRESSES
CAUSED BY INTERNAL FORCES
66
LONGITUDINAL STRESS (S
L
) due to internal
pressure:
S
L
= P
i
D
o
/4 t --- PSI

Where:
Pi = Internal Pressure, Psi.
Do = Outside Diameter, in.

t = Design Pressure Wall Thickness, in.
1. LONGITUDINAL STRESSES
DUE TO INTERNAL PRESSURE
67
BENDING STRESS (S
L
) is another
component of normal stress:
S
L
= M
b
c/ I --- PSI

Where:
Mb = Bending Moment acting on cross-
section, in-lb.
C = distance of point of interest from
neutral axis of cross-section, in.

I = Moment of Inertia of cross-section,
in
4

1. LONGITUDINAL STRESSES
BENDING STRESS
68
S
L
= F
ax
/A
m
+ P d
o
/4t + M
b
/ Z
SUM OF LONGITUDINAL
STRESSES
69
HOOP STRESS (S
H
): is the stress in a pipe
of wall thickness t acting
circumferentially in a plane perpendicular
to the longitudinal axis of the pipe.

Barlows Formula:
S
H
= P
i
D
o
/2t --- PSI
2. HOOP STRESSES
70
RADIAL STRESS ( S
R
) : (Psi)
S
R
= P (r
i
2
-r
i
2
r
o
2
/r
2
)/(r
0
2
-r
i
2
)

Where:
P = Internal Pressure, PSI
ri = Internal Radius, in
ro = Outside Radius, in
3. RADIAL STRESSES
71
SHEAR STRESS (t
max
) are applied in a
directional parallel to the face of the plane of
the crystal structure of the material, and
tends to cause adjacent planes of the crystal
to slip against each other:
t
max
= V Q/A
m
--- PSI

Where:
V = Shear Force, lb.
Q = Shear Form Factor, 1.333 for solid
circular section.

Am= Metal cross-sectional of pipe, in
2

II. SHEAR STRESSES
72
SHEAR STRESS (t
max
) may also be caused
by torsional loads:
max
= M
t
/2 Z --- PSI


II. SHEAR STRESSES
73

max
= V Q /A
m +,
M
t
/2 Z

PSI
SUM OF SHEAR STRESSES
74
S
E
= S
b

2
+ 4 S
t
2
Z
Where :
S
E
= Stress due to expansion, Psi.
S
b
= Equivalent Bending Stress (in-Lb)
S
t
= Torsional moment, in-Lb
Z = Section Modulus of pipe, in
3

SECONDARY STRESS: DUE TO
THERMAL EXPANSION
75
S
B
= (i
i
M
i
)
2
+ (i
o
M
o
)
2

Z
S
T
= M
T
/2Z

SECONDARY STRESS: DUE TO
THERMAL EXPANSION
76
E S
E
= Stress due to expansion.
E S
b
= Equivalent Bending Stress, Psi.
E S
t
= Torsional Stress, Psi.
E M
i
= Bending Moment in-plane of member, in-
lb.
E M
o
= Bending Moment out of plane, in-lb.
E M
t
= Torsional Moment
E i
i
= SIF under bending in-plane of member
E i
o
= SIF under bending out-plane of member
E Z = Section Modulus of pipe, in
3

DEFINITION
77
THE ALLOWABLE STRESS VALUE, S
FOR NEW PIPE OF KNOWN SPECIFICATION
S = 0.72 x E x SMYS ( psi)
where:
0.72 = Design Factor based on nominal
Wall Thick.
E = Weld Joint Factor.
SMYS = Specified Minimum Yield
Strength
78
THE ALLOWABLE STRESS VALUE, S
FOR NEW PIPE OF UNKNOWN SPECIFICATION
S = 0.72 x E x MYS ( psi)
where:
MYS = Minimum Yield Strength of the
Pipe { 24,000 PSI or determined
In accordance ANSI B31.4 , para
437.6.6 and 437.6.7.
Allowable Stress Value in Shear < 45%
SMYS
Allowable Stress value in Bearing < 90%
SMYS
79
THE ALLOWABLE STRESS VALUE, S
The Allowable Stress Value S to be
used to calculate for pipe which has
been cold worked in order to meet
SMYS and is subsequently heated to
600 F (300 C) or higher (welding
excepted) shall be:
75 % of The Applicable Stress
Value, S.
80
THE ALLOWABLE EXPANSION
STRESS
1.RESTRAINED LINES:
< 90% of SMYS
2.UN-RESTRAINED:
S
A
< 72% SMYS
81
SUMMARY OF LONGITUDINAL
STRESSES
SUM OF THE LONGITUDINAL
STRESSES DUE TO
PRESSURE, WEIGHT AND
OTHER SUSTAINED
EXTERNAL LOADING :
< 75% S
A
< 75% x 72% SMYS
< 54% SMYS
82
SUMMARY OF CIRCUMFERENTIAL
STRESSES
SUM OF THE CIRCUMFERENTIAL
STRESSES DUE TO INTERNAL DESIGN
PRESSURE AND EXTERNAL LOAD IN PIPE
INSTALLED UNDER RAILROADS OR
HIGHWAYS WITHOUT USE OF CASING :
< 0.72 x E x SMYS
83
OPERATION:
+ The SUM of Longitudinal Stresses
produced by Pressure, Live and Dead
Load and by occasional load, such as
Wind, earthquake: < 80% SMYS
TEST:
+ Stress due to test condition are not
subjected to the above limitation. It
is not necessary to consider other
occasional load, such as wind &
earthquake.
LIMIT OF CALCULATED STRESS
due to Occasional Load
84
DESIGN STRESS:
DUE TO EXTERNAL LOAD
Most of pipelines are installed at
underground or also known as BURIED
PIPE.
The pipeline is influenced by environmental
conditions.
There are a number of problems associated
with this phenomena.
External Load, Bursting Pressure, Thermal
Expansion, Anchor Forces and the Pipe
Bowing Out of the Ground are few of the
problems which should be anticipated
depend on soil condition.
85
DESIGN CONSIDERATION
FILL LOADS
LIVE LOADS
DEGREE OF PROJECTION
PRESSURE, VACUUM, WATER HAMMER AND
EXTERNAL LOAD STRESSES IN COMBINATION.
DIAMETRAL DEFLECTION
BEDDING CONDITIONS
SOIL WASHOUT (especially when on pile caps)
DEGREE OF SOIL COMPACTION
MOISTURE CONTENT OF SOIL
SETTLEMENT
86
GROUP OF PIPE BASED ON
DIAMETRICAL RIGIDITY
1. RIGID: Pipe that can not be distorted more
than 0.1 percent without causing damage.
2. SEMI RIGID: Pipe that may be distorted
between 0.1 percent and 3.0 percent
without causing damage. Most steel pipe
will fall into the semi rigid class, since they
may not be distorted greater than 2 % due
to limits of field joints, lining and coating
properties, internal cleaning device.
3. FLEXIBLE: Pipe that may be distorted
greater than 3 % without causing damage.
87
FILL LOAD
1. In the case where the soil prism directly over
or adjacent to the pipe SETTLES MORE than the
walls of the trench, PART of the FILL LOAD will
be transferred to the walls (trench condition).
2. Where the Soil Prism directly over the pipe
SETTLES LESS than the soil on either side, THE
PIPE will CARRY the weight of the soil directly
over it plus some of soil weight on either side.
3. In the case where the soil prism directly over
the pipe SETTLES the SAME amount as the soil
either side, the LOAD on the PIPE is essentially
the WEIGHT of the SOIL directly OVER the
pipe.
88
FILL LOADS
THE MARSTON FORMULA FOR RIGID AND SEMI
RIGID PIPE:
W
(ct)
= C w B
2
(compressible fill)

Where: W
(ct)
= Fill Load on the pipe (lbs/ft)
w = Unit weight of trench fill material
(lbs/ft
3
)
C = Calculation coefficient determined from
H/B and the table in attachment.
B = Width of trench at the top of pipe (ft)
H = Height of fill above the top of pipe (ft)
89
FILL LOADS
1. FLEXIBLE PIPE:
W
(cm)
= C w BD

Where: W
(cm)
= Fill Load on the pipe (lbs/ft)
w = Unit weight of trench fill material
(lbs/ft
3
)
C = Calculation coefficient determined
from H/B and the table in
attachment.
B = Width of trench at the top of pipe (ft)
D = Outside diameter of pipe (ft)
90
UNIT WEIGHT OF FILL
MATERIAL
FILL MATERIAL
w ( lbs/ft
3
)
LOAM OR SANDY LOAM 110
SAND
115
GRAVEL
125
SANDY, GRAVELLY, AND ORDINARY CLAY (maximum) 120
SATURATED CLAY
130
91
LIVE LOAD
1. The piping may be exposed to live
loads such as TRUCKS, TRAINS, AND
CONSTRUCTING EQUIPMENT.
2. Live loads presented as an effective
soil pressure acting on the pipe at a
depth measured to the top of the
pipe.
92
LIVE LOAD
1. Loading from H20 trucks and E72
locomotives, which would be minimum
and maximum live load values, can be
determined from attachment
drawings.
2. The loads are described in unit of
vertical pressure and are to be
converted to pounds per lineal foot, to
combine with the loads as determined
in Fill Loads On Buried Pipe.
93
LIVE LOAD
FOR LOADING OTHER THAN H20 OR
E72, EQUIVALENT VERTICAL EARTH
PRESSURE MAY BE FOUND BY MEANS
OF BOUSSINESQ AND NEWMARK
ANALYSIS:
QC (b)
P (11) =
H
2
C(b) is the Boussinesq coefficient.
Q is the acting live loads.
94
DIAMETRICAL DEFLECTION
(OVALIZATION)
D
H
d
d = diametrical deflection
B = width of trench
D = OD pipe
H = height of fill above pipe
95
DETERMINING
DIAMETRICAL DEFLECTION
using SPANGLER FORMULA

f k w(x) r(m)
3

d =
Ei + 0.061 E r(m)
3

96
ALLOWABLE DIAMETRICAL
DEFLECTION
1. IS BASED ON THE AWWA
(AMERICAN WATER WORK
ASSOCIATION) PUBLICATION NO.
M11, STEEL PIPE DESIGN AND
INSTALLATION.
2. THE ALLOWABLE DEFLECTION IS
GIVEN AS A PERCENTAGE OF
DIAMETER.
97
ALLOWABLE DIAMETRICAL
DEFLECTION
1. FOR CEMENT MORTAR OR
COATED PIPE, THE
ALLOWABLE IN ON THE ORDER
OF 2 PERCENT.
2. FOR COAL TAR EBAMEL LINED
OR COATED PIPE : 3 - 5 %
3. PIPES WITH MECHANICAL
JOINTS ARE LIMITED TO 2 %
98
ALLOWABLE DIAMETRICAL
DEFLECTION
1. FLEXIBLE PIPE : Up to 20%
2. FOR HYDROCARBON SERVICE
THAT SUBJECT TO INTERNAL
CLEANING, THE ALLOWABLE
DIAMETERICAL DEFLECTION IS
LIMITED TO 2 % TO ALLOW
SUFFICIENT CLEARANCE FOR
THE CLEANING DEVICE (PIG) TO
TRAVEL THROUGH THE PIPE.
99
BEDDING CONDITION
1. Class A : Flat Bottom trench with little or no
attention paid to tamping.
2. Class B : Flat Bottom trench with backfill
placed in lifts and well tamped.
3. Class C : Pipe Supported on block with
backfill not tamped.
4. Class D : Pipe Supported on blocks with
backfill tamped.
5. Class E : Bottom of trench conforms to
bottom of pipe for about 90 degrees backfill
not tamped.
6. Class F : Same as Class E, with backfill
tamped.
100
BREAKING LOAD
where:
W(br) =
t (min) =
D (o) = Outside Diameter of Pipe (in.)
R (m) =
Modulus of Rupture of pipe material (lbs/in
2
)
0.0795 =
Ring Test Crushing Load (Breaking Load)
Pipe Wall thickness less corrosion allowance
tolerance (in)
W(br) =
t (min )
2
R (m)
0.0795 (D(o) + t(min))
101
RING TEST EQUIVALENT
(internal pressure)
2.5 W(e)
W (r) = Lbs/ft)
b3

where, W(e) is Earth Load (Lbs/ft)
b3 is Ratio to 3-edge bearing (load
factor)
102
RING TEST EQUIVALENT
(external loads from earth & truck super load)
2.5 W(e) + W(t)
W (r) = lbs/ft
b3

where, W(e) is Earth Load (Lbs/ft)
b3 is Ratio to 3-edge bearing (load
factor)
W(t) is Truck Super Load
103
BURSTING PRESSURE
2 St (min)
P (B) = Psi
(D(o) - 2t (min))


104
DEFINITIONS
D(o) : Outside diameter of pipe (in)
d : Diametrical deflection of pipe
due to external loading (in.)
r (m) : Mean Radius of Pipe (in.)
E : Young Modulus (Lb/in
2
)
t (min): Pipe Wall (minus MT & CA)
t : Nominal Wall Thickness (in)
i : Moment of Inertia of section of pipe
per linear foot of pipe (in
3
)
C : Calculation coefficient
105
DEFINITIONS
W : Unit weight of fill material (lbs/ft
3
)
W(x) : Total external load on pipe (lb/in)
W(f) : Fill Load on Pipe (lb/in)
P(11) : Live Loads on Pipe (lb/ft
2
)
t (min): Pipe Wall (minus MT & CA)
f : Deflection lag factor; for initial
deflection, use f=1.0.
k : Bedding constant.
E : Soil Modulus (psi)
q : Angle of Bedding.
106
LONGITUDINAL STRESS
due to sustained loading
1. Sum Longitudinal Stress = Total
Maximum Bending Stress due to
DEAD LOAD and the Stress
developed due Internal Pressure.
2. In situation of Live Load may
present problems, the moment
due to the LIVE LOADS are
additive to the loads due to
pressure and DEAD LOAD.
107
STEP OF CALCULATION
1. DETERMINE BENDING MOMENT
DUE TO DEAD WEIGHT.
2. DETERMINE BENDING STRESS IN
PIPE DUE TO LIVE LOADS.
3. DETERMINE COMBINED
LONGITUDINAL STRESS IN PIPE
WALL.
4. DETERMINE ALLOWABLE STRESS
LEVEL.

108
THERMAL EXPANSION OF
BURIED PIPE
1. THE RESISTANCE TO THERMAL EXPANSION
OFFERED BY THE SOIL DEPENDS ON THE
CONTACT MADE BETWEEN PIPE AND SOIL.
2. THIS FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE DEPENDS ON
:
- THE SURFACE ROUGHNESS OF THE
PIPE.
- THE TYPE OF SOIL
- THE CONDITION OF SOIL
3. VALUES FOR COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION
VARY BETWEEN 0.1 TO 0.8.
4. AVERAGE VALUES MAY BE ASSUMED TO BE
ABOUT 0.4 AND 0.5
109
THERMAL EXPANSION OF
BURIED PIPE
1 AS THE SOIL AROUND THE PIPE IS IN A STATE
OF COMPRESSION, THE SOIL TENDS TO EXERT A
PRESSURE ON THE WALL OF THE PIPE.
1 THIS PRESSURE WILL REFER TO PASSIVE
PRESSURE.
1 VALUES OF PASSIVE PRESSURE HAVE BEEN
FOUND BY KARL TERZAGHI TO VARY FROM 0.2
TO 0.8 TIMES THE WEIGHT OF SOIL ABOVE THE
CENTER LINE OF THE PIPE.
1 ON CONSERVATIVE SIDE, THE LIGHTER LOAD
MUST BE IMPLIED, AND PP OF 0.2 WILL BE
UTILIZED FOR DETERMINING SOIL RESISTANCE
TO THERMAL EXPANSION.
110
THERMAL EXPANSION OF
BURIED PIPE
1 BECAUSE BURIED PIPE IS IN INTIMATE
CONTACT WITH THE SOIL IT IS PLACED IN, THE
BEHAVIOR OF THE PIPE DURING THERMAL
EXPANSION IS DIRECTLY DEPENDENT ON THE
PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL
1 THESE SOIL PROPERTIES AND THEIR
INTERACTION WITH THE PIPE ARE DIFFICULT
AND EXPENSIVE TO ASSESS, SUBJECT TO
CONTROVERSY AND IN SOME INSTANCE
POORLY UNDERSTOOD AT THIS TIME.
1 FOR THIS REASON ENGINEERING JUDGEMENT
MUST BE USED WHEN EVALUATING THE SOIL
CONDITIONS AND THEIR AFFECT ON THE
BEHAVIOR OF THE PIPE.