WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROBLEM?

A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same. An individual or a group of persons can be said to have a problem which can be technically described as a research problem. We can, thus, state the components of a research problem as under: There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem. There must be some objectives to be attained at. There must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for obtaining the objectives one wishes to attain. There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the selection of alternatives. This means that research must answer the question concerning the relative efficiency of the possible alternatives. There must be some environments to which the difficulty pertains.

There are many problem situations that may give rise to research. Three sources usually contribute to problem identification. Own experience or the experience of others may be a source of problem supply. A second source could be scientific literature. You may read about certain findings and notice that a certain field was not covered. This could lead to a research problem. Theories could be a third source. Shortcomings in theories could be researched.

IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM

The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected. The task is a difficult one, although it may not appear to be so. Help may be taken from a research guide in this connection. Nevertheless, every researcher must find out his own salvation for research problems cannot be borrowed. A problem must spring from the researchers mind like a plant springing from its own seed. However, the following points may be observed by a researcher in selecting a research problem or a subject for research: Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task to throw any new light in such a case. Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher. Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.

The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related research material or sources of research are within ones reach. Even then it is quite difficult to supply definitive ideas concerning how a researcher should obtain ideas for his research. For this purpose, a researcher should contact an expert or a professor in the university who is already engaged in research. He may as well read articles published in current literature available on the subject and may think how the techniques and ideas discussed therein might be applied to the solution of other problems. He may discuss with others what he has in mind concerning a problem. In this way he should make all possible efforts in selecting a problem. The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a researcher, the costs involved, the time factor are few other criteria that must also be considered in selecting a problem. In other words, before the final selection of a problem is done, a research must ask himself the following questions:

Whether he is well equipped in terms of his background to carry out the research? Whether the study falls within the budget he can afford? Whether the necessary cooperation can be obtained from those who must participate in research as subject?

If the answers to all the questions are in the affirmative, one may become sure so far as the practicability of the study is concerned. The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study.

The research problem should be stated in such a way that it would lead to analytical thinking on the part of the researcher with the aim of possible concluding solutions to the stated problem. Research problems can be stated in the form of either questions or statements. The research problem should always be formulated grammatically correct and as completely as possible. You should bear in mind the wording (expressions) you use. Avoid meaningless words. There should be no doubt in the mind of the reader what your intentions are. Demarcating the research field into manageable parts by dividing the main problem into sub-problems is of the utmost importance.

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NO

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Is the problem of current interest? Will the research results have social, educational or scientific value? Will it be possible to apply the results in practice? Does the research contribute to the science of education? Will the research opt new problems and lead to further research? Is the research problem important? Will you be proud of the result? Is there enough scope left within the area of research (field of research)? Can you find an answer to the problem through research? Will you be able to handle the research problem?

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Will it be practically possible to undertake the research?

Will it be possible for another researcher to repeat the research? Is the research free of any ethical problems and limitations? Will it have any value? Do you have the necessary knowledge and skills to do the research? Are you qualified to undertake the research? Is the problem important to you and are you motivated to undertake the research? Is the research viable in your situation? Do you have enough time and energy to complete the project? Do you have the necessary funds for the research? Will you be able to complete the project within the time available? Do you have access to the administrative, statistic and computer facilities the research necessitates? TOTAL:

NECESSITY OF DEFINING THE PROBLEM

Quite often we all hear that a problem clearly stated is a problem half solved. This statement signifies the need for defining a research problem. The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help to discriminate relevant data from the irrelevant ones. A proper definition of research problem will enable the researcher to be on the track whereas an ill-defined problem may create hurdles. Questions like: What data are to be collected? What characteristics of data are relevant and need to be studied? What relations are to be explored? What techniques are to be used for the purpose? And similar other questions crop up in the mind of the researcher who can well plan his strategy and find answers to all such questions only when the research problem has been well defined. Thus, defining a research problem properly is a prerequisite for any study and is a step of the highest importance. In fact, formulation of a problem is often more essential than its solution. It is only on careful detailing the research problem that we can work out the research design and can smoothly carry on all the consequential steps involved while doing research.

TECHNIQUE INVOLVED IN DEFINING A PROBLEM Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a crucial part of a research study and must in no case be accomplished hurriedly. However, in practice this is frequently overlooked which causes a lot of problems later on. Hence, the research problem should be defined in a systematic manner, giving due weightage to all relating points. The technique for the purpose involves the undertaking of the following steps generally one after the other: Statement of the problem in a general way: First of all the problem should be stated in a broad general way, keeping in view either some practical concern or scientific or intellectual interest. For this purpose, the researcher must immerse himself thoroughly in the subject matter concerning which he wishes to pose a problem. In case of social research, it is considered advisable to do some field observation and as such the researcher may undertake some sort of preliminary survey or what is often called pilot survey.

Understanding the nature of the problem: The next step in defining the problem is to understand its origin and nature clearly. The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with those who first raised it in order to find out how the problem originally came about and with what objectives in view. For better understanding of the nature of the problem involved, he can enter into discussion with those who have a good knowledge of the problem concerned or similar other problems. The researcher should also keep in view the environment within which the problems is to be studied and understood. Surveying the available literature: All available literature concerning the problem at hand must necessarily be surveyed and examined before a definition of the research problem is given. This means that the researcher must be well-conversant with relevant theories in the field, reports and records as also all other relevant literature. He must devote sufficient time in reviewing of research already undertaken on related problems. This is done to find out what data and other materials, if any, are available for operational purposes. This would also help a researcher to know if there are certain gaps in the theories.

Developing the ideas through discussions: Discussion concerning a problem often produces useful information. Various new ideas can be developed through such an exercise. Hence, a researcher must discuss his problem with his colleagues and others who have enough experience in the same area or in working on similar problems. This is quite often known as an experience survey. They help him sharpen his focus of attention on specific aspects within the field. Discussions with such persons should not only be confined to the formulation of the specific problem at hand, but should also be concerned with the general approach to the given problem, techniques that might be used, possible solutions etc. Rephrasing the research problem: Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the research problem into a working proposition. Once the nature of the problem has been clearly understood, the environment has been defined, discussions over the problem have taken place and the available literature has been surveyed and examined, rephrasing the problem into analytical or operational terms is not a difficult task. Through rephrasing, the researcher puts the research problem in as specific terms as possible so that it may become operationally viable and may help in the development of working hypothesis. In addition to what has been stated above, the following points must also be observed while defining a research problem:

Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used in the statement of the problem, should be clearly defined. Basic assumptions relating to the research problem should be clearly stated. A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation should be provided. The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available must also be considered by the researcher in defining the problem. The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be studied must be mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem.

FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS
What is Hypothesis? A hypothesis may be defined as a proposition or a set of propositions set forth as an explanation for the occurrence of some specified group of phenomena either asserted merely as a provisional conjecture to guide some investigation or accepted as highly probable in the light of established facts. Quite often a research hypothesis is a predictive statement, capable of being tested by scientific methods, that relates an independent variable to some dependent variable. For example, consider statements like the following ones: Student who receives counselling will show a greater increase in creativity than students not receiving counselling or the automobile A is performing as well as automobile B. These are hypothesis capable of being objectively verified and tested. Thus, we may conclude that a hypothesis states what we are looking for and it is a proposition which can be put to a test to determine its validity.

Characteristics of Hypothesis: Hypothesis must possess the following characteristics: Hypothesis should be clear and precise. Hypothesis should be capable of being tested. Hypothesis should state relationship between variables, if it happens to be a rational hypothesis. Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific. Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms so that the same is easily understandable by all concerned. Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts i.e., must be consistent with a substantial body of established facts. Hypothesis should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time. Hypothesis must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for explanation.

Hypothesis Formulation Science proceeds by a process of observation, hypothesis formulation, hypothesis testing, and on the basis of the test, accepting or rejecting your hypothesis. If your hypothesis is accepted then you (or others) will attempt to replicate your results, however if you reject your hypothesis then you will have to refine or modify it in some way. It is therefore useful to always have a clear idea of your hypothesis, which is essentially the question you are asking, as it will greatly ease your interpretation of the results. There are several steps to the scientific method. First, you observe something, and then you formulate a question that you will research. You then formulate a hypothesis based on what you expect, or predict, will happen given your observations and the nature of the system. Once a hypothesis is formed, experiments can be conducted to see if the hypothesis holds true. There are many ways to state a hypothesis, but in all cases hypotheses are testable statements.

Step 1 Formulate a question based on your observations. For instance, you observe that cows fed a certain supplement produce more milk. Your question would be "Do cows that are fed supplement X produce more milk?" Step 2 Determine your dependent and independent variables. Dependent variables are those you are measuring, or those that depend on the conditions you are manipulating (which are the independent variables). In our example, supplement X would be our independent variable; milk production would be our dependent variable (that is, what we are measuring). Step 3 Determine whether you are going to write a one-tailed or a two-tailed hypothesis. One-tailed hypotheses are predictions in one direction. For instance, "supplement X will increase milk production" is a one-tailed hypothesis because the prediction is that milk production will increase. If you had expected a decrease, it would still have been a one-tailed hypothesis, only in the other direction. Two-tailed hypotheses are used when the direction of the response is not predicted. For instance, "a diet containing supplement X will affect milk production in cows" is a two-tailed hypothesis because you are predicting only a change, not a specific change in one direction or another. Step 4 Write your hypothesis. It should take an if-then format; that is, if X happens then Y will be observed. Make sure that X is your independent variable and Y is your dependent variable. Also keep in mind whether your hypothesis is one- or twotailed. In our example, an appropriate hypothesis would be "If supplement X is fed to cows, milk production will increase." This is a one-tailed hypothesis, because we are predicting an increase.

Actually, whenever we talk about a hypothesis, we are really thinking simultaneously about two hypotheses. Let's say that you predict that there will be a relationship between two variables in your study. The way we would formally set up the hypothesis test is to formulate two hypothesis statements, one that describes your prediction and one that describes all the other possible outcomes with respect to the hypothesized relationship. Your prediction is that variable A and variable B will be related (you don't care whether it's a positive or negative relationship). Then the only other possible outcome would be that variable A and variable B are not related. Usually, we call the hypothesis that you support (your prediction) the alternative hypothesis, and we call the hypothesis that describes the remaining possible outcomes the null hypothesis. Sometimes we use a notation like HA or H1 to represent the alternative hypothesis or your prediction, and HO or H0 to represent the null case. You have to be careful here, though. In some studies, your prediction might very well be that there will be no difference or change. In this case, you are essentially trying to find support for the null hypothesis and you are opposed to the alternative.

If your prediction specifies a direction, and the null therefore is the no difference prediction and the prediction of the opposite direction, we call this a one-tailed hypothesis. For instance, let's imagine that you are investigating the effects of a new employee training program and that you believe one of the outcomes will be that there will be less employee absenteeism. Your two hypotheses might be stated something like this:

The null hypothesis for this study is: HO: As a result of the XYZ company employee training program, there will either be no significant difference in employee absenteeism or there will be a significant increase. which is tested against the alternative hypothesis: HA: As a result of the XYZ company employee training program, there will be a significant decrease in employee absenteeism. In the figure on the left, we see this situation illustrated graphically. The alternative hypothesis -- your prediction that the program will decrease absenteeism -- is shown there. The null must account for the other two possible conditions: no difference, or an increase in absenteeism. The figure shows a hypothetical distribution of absenteeism differences. We can see that the term "one-tailed" refers to the tail of the distribution on the outcome variable.

When your prediction does not specify a direction, we say you have a two-tailed hypothesis. For instance, let's assume you are studying a new drug treatment for depression. The drug has gone through some initial animal trials, but has not yet been tested on humans. You believe (based on theory and the previous research) that the drug will have an effect, but you are not confident enough to hypothesize a direction and say the drug will reduce depression (after all, you've seen more than enough promising drug treatments come along that eventually were shown to have severe side effects that actually worsened symptoms). In this case, you might state the two hypotheses like this: The null hypothesis for this study is: HO: As a result of 300mg./day of the ABC drug, there will be no significant difference in depression. which is tested against the alternative hypothesis: HA: As a result of 300mg./day of the ABC drug, there will be a significant difference in depression.

The figure on the right illustrates this two-tailed prediction for this case. Again, notice that the term "two-tailed" refers to the tails of the distribution for your outcome variable. The important thing to remember about stating hypotheses is that you formulate your prediction (directional or not), and then you formulate a second hypothesis that is mutually exclusive of the first and incorporates all possible alternative outcomes for that case. When your study analysis is completed, the idea is that you will have to choose between the two hypotheses. If your prediction was correct, then you would (usually) reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative. If your original prediction was not supported in the data, then you will accept the null hypothesis and reject the alternative. The logic of hypothesis testing is based on these two basic principles: the formulation of two mutually exclusive hypothesis statements that, together, exhaust all possible outcomes the testing of these so that one is necessarily accepted and the other rejected

Research Design

A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. In fact, the research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data.

Some important features of a research design as under: It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research problem. It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and analysing the data. It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under these two constraints. In brief, research design must, at least, contain- (a) a clear statement of the research problem; (b) procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information; (c) the population to be studied; and (d) methods to be used in processing and analysing data.

Important Concepts Relating to Research Design

Before describing the different research designs, it will be appropriate to explaining the various concepts relating to designs so that these may be better and easily understood. Dependent and Independent Variables: A concept which can take on different quantitative values is called a variable. As such the concepts like weights, height, and income are all examples of variables. If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable, it is terms as a dependent variable, and the variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is termed as an independent variable. For instance, if we say that height depends upon age, then height is a dependent variable and age is an independent variable. Extraneous Variable: Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent variable we termed as extraneous variables. Suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is relationship between childrens gains in social studies achievement and their self-concepts. In this case self-concept is an independent variable and social studies achievement is a dependent variable. Intelligence may as well affect the social studies achievement, but since it is not related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it will be termed as an extraneous variable.

Control: One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimise the influence or effect of extraneous variables. The technical term control, is used when we design the study minimising the effect of extraneous independent variables. In experimental researches, the term control is used to refer to restrain experimental conditions. Confounded Relationship: When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of extraneous variables, the relationship between the dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded by an extraneous variables. Research Hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesised relationship is to be tested by scientific methods, it is termed as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an independent variable to a dependent variable. Usually a research hypothesis must contain, at least, one independent and one dependent variable.

Experimental and Non-experimental Hypothesis-Testing Research: When the purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis-testing research. It can be of the experimental design or of the non-experimental design. Research in which the independent variable is manipulated is termed experimental hypothesis-testing research and a research in which an independent variable is not manipulated is called non-experimental hypothesis-testing research. For instance, suppose a researcher wants to study whether inttelligence affects reading ability for a group of students and for this purpose he randomly selects 50 students and tests their intelligence and reading ability by calculating the coefficient of correlation between the two sets of scores. This is an example of non-experimental hypothesis-testing research because herin the independent variable, intelligene, is not manipulated. But now suppose that researcher randomly selects 50 students from a group of students who are to take a course in statistics and divides them into two groups by randomly assigning 25 to Group A, the usual studies program, and 25 to Group B, the special studies program. At the end of the course, he administers a test to each group in order to judge the effectiveness of the training program on students performance-level. This is an example of experimental hypothesis testing research because in this case the independent variable, viz., the type of training program, is manipulated.

Experimental and Control Groups: In an experimental hypothesis-testing research when a group is exposed to usual conditions, it is termed a control group, but when the group is exposed to some novel or special condition, it is termed an experimental group. In the above illustration, the Group A can be called a control group and Group B an experimental group. Experiment: The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some research problem, is known as an experiment. For example, we can conduct an experiment to examine the usefulness of a certain newly developed drug. Experiments can be of two types viz., absolute experiment and comparative experiment. If we want to determine the impact of a fertilizer on the yield of a crop, it is a case of absolute experiment; but if we want to determine the impact of one fertilizer as compared to the impact of some other fertilizer, our experiment then will be termed as a comparative experiment. Often, we undertake comparative experiments when we talk of designs of experiments.

Developing a Research Plan

After identifying and defining the problem as also accomplishing the relating task, researcher must arrange his ideas in order and write them in the form of an experimental plan or what can be described as Research Plan. Research plan must contain the following items: 1. Research objective should be clearly stated in a line or two which tells exactly what it is that researcher expects to do. 2. The problem to be studied by researcher must be explicitly stated so that one may know what information is to be obtained for solving the problem. 3. Each major concept which researcher wants to measure should be defined in operational terms in context of the research project. 4. The plan should contain the method to be used in solving the problem. An overall description of the approach to be adopted is usually given and assumptions, if any, of the concerning method to be used are clearly mentioned in the research plan.

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The plan must also state the details of the techniques to be adopted. For instance, if interview method is to be used, an account of the nature of the contemplated interview procedure should be given. A clear mention of the population to be studied should be made. If the study happens to be sample based, the research plan should state the sampling plan i.e., how the sample is to be identified. The method of identifying the sample should be such that generalization from the sample to the original population is feasible. The plan must also contain the methods to be used in processing the data. Statistical and other methods to be used must be indicated in the plan. Such methods should not be left until the data have been collected. Results of pilot test, if any, should be reported. Time and cost budgets for the research project should also be prepared and laid down in the plan itself.

Steps of Research Design Process

Step 1: Define the Research Problem Problem definition is the most important part of the research process. Unless the problem is properly defined, the information produced by the research process is unlikely to have any value. Research problem definition involves four interrelated steps: (1) opportunity clarification, (2) situation analysis, (3) model development, and (4) specification of information requirements. Step 2: Objectives and Hypothesis The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of specific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose we may think of research objectives as falling into number of following broad groupings: a) To gain familiarity with a phenomena or to achieve new insights into it. b) To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group. c) To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else. ; d) To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables. Having chosen the research problem and specified the objectives, the researcher usually proceeds to formulate hypothesis. It is advisable that the researcher suggests a set of solutions to the problem which, when framed into propositional forms, are termed hypothesis.

Step 3: Select the Data Collection Approach There are three basic data collection approaches in marketing research: (1) secondary data, (2) survey data, and (3) experimental data. Secondary data were collected for some purpose other than helping to solve the current problem, whereas primary data are collected expressly to help solve the problem at hand. Step 4: Select the Measurement Technique There are four basic measurement techniques used in marketing research: (1) questionnaires, (2) attitude scales, (3) observation, and (4) depth interviews and projective techniques. Questionnaire a formalized instrument for asking information directly from a respondent concerning behavior, demographic characteristics, level of knowledge, and/or attitudes, beliefs, and feelings. Attitude Scales a formalized instrument for eliciting self-reports of beliefs and feelings concerning an object(s). Observation the direct examination of behavior, the results of behavior, or physiological changes. Projective Techniques and Depth Interview designed to gather information that respondents are either unable or unwilling to provide in response to direct questioning. A. Projective Techniques allow respondents to project or express their own feelings as a characteristic of someone or something else. B. Depth Interviews allow individuals to express themselves without any fear of disapproval, dispute, or advice from the interviewer. Step 5: Select the Sample Most marketing studies involve a sample or subgroup of the total population relevant to the problem, rather than a census of the entire group.

Step 6: Select the Model of Analysis It is imperative that the researcher select the analytic techniques prior to collecting the data. Step 7: Evaluate the Ethics of the Research It is essential that marketing researchers restrict their research activities to practices that are ethically sound. Ethically sound research considers the interests of the general public, the respondents, the client and the research profession as well as those of the researcher. Step 8: Estimate Time and Financial Requirements The program evaluation review technique (PERT) coupled with the critical path method (CPM) offers a useful aid for estimating the resources needed for a project and clarifying the planning and control process. PERT involves dividing the total research project into its smallest component activities, determining the sequence in which these activities must be performed, and attaching a time estimate for each activity. Step 9: Prepare the Research Report Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following:

The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text, and (iii) the end matter. At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data. Bibliography, i.e., list of books, journal, repots etc., should also be given in the end. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vague expressions such as it seems, there may be and the like. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the information more clearly and forcibly.