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UCCN2023
Fundamentals of Wireless
Communications
Topic 4 : Modulation Techniques
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Topic 4: Modulation Techniques

4.1 Modulation
4.2 Analog Modulation Techniques
4.3 Digital Modulation Techniques
4.4 Constellation Diagram
4.5 Digital Modulation & Constellation Diagram
4.6 Gray Mapping
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4.1 Modulation
Modulation is the process of encoding information from a message
source in a manner suitable for transmission through the chosen
channel.
It generally involves translating a baseband message signal (called
the source) to a bandpass signal at frequencies that are very high
when compared to the baseband frequency.
The bandpass signal is called the modulated signal
The baseband message signal is called the modulating signal.
Why modulation? Why not transmit the waveforms directly over the
radio channel? Main reason = To reduce antenna size.
The typical antenna size is /4. Assuming that the baseband message
is a sinusoid with frequency f = 1000 Hz; then the antenna size would
be 75 km!
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4.1 Modulation
Modulation may be done by varying the amplitude, phase, or
frequency of a high frequency carrier in accordance with the
amplitude of the message signal.
Demodulation is the process of extracting the baseband message
from the carrier so that it may be processed and interpreted by the
intended receiver.
The ultimate goal of a modulation technique is to transport the
message signal through a radio channel with the best possible quality
while occupying the least amount of radio spectrum.
First generation mobile radio systems employs analog modulation
schemes.
Digital modulation schemes are used in present systems and will
dominate the future systems since digital modulation offers numerous
benefits.

Message signal
x(t)
Carrier signal
AM signal
s(t)
Time
Time
Time
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4.2 Analog Modulation Techniques - Amplitude
Modulation (AM) Schemes
Amplitude of carrier signal is varied as the message signal to be transmitted.
Frequency of carrier signal is kept constant.
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4.2 Analog Modulation Techniques Frequency
Modulation (AM) Schemes
FM integrates message signal with carrier signal by varying the
instantaneous frequency. Amplitude of carrier signal is kept constant.
Carrier signal
Message signal
x(t)
FM signal
s(t)
Time
Time
Time
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4.2 Analog Modulation Techniques AM and FM
Sourced from:
Wireless Communications & Network, Stallings, pg 151
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4.2 Analog Modulation Techniques AM vs FM
In amplitude modulation (AM) schemes, there is a linear relationship
between the quality of the received signal and the power of the
received signal since AM signals superimpose the exact relative
amplitudes of the modulating signal onto the carrier. Thus, AM signals
have all their information in the amplitude of the carrier.
Frequency modulation (FM) is the most popular analog modulation
technique used in mobile radio systems. In FM, the amplitude of the
modulated carrier signal is kept constant while its frequency is varied
by the modulating message signal.
FM offers many advantages over amplitude modulation (AM), which
makes it a better choice for many mobile radio applications.
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4.2 Analog Modulation Techniques AM vs FM
FM signals have all their information in the phase or frequency of the
carrier. As shown subsequently, this provides a nonlinear and very
rapid improvement in reception quality once a certain minimum
received signal level, called the FM threshold, is achieved.
Frequency modulation has better noise immunity when compared to
amplitude modulation. Since signals are represented as frequency
variations rather than amplitude variations, FM signals are less
susceptible to atmospheric and impulse noise, which tend to cause
rapid fluctuations in the amplitude of the received radio signal.
Also, message amplitude variations do not carry information in FM, so
burst noise does not affect FM system performance as much as AM
systems, provided that the FM received signal is above the FM
threshold.


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4.3 Digital Modulation Techniques
Modern mobile communication systems use digital modulation
techniques.
Advancements in very large-scale integration (VLSI) and digital
signal processing (DSP) technology have made digital modulation
more cost effective than analog transmission systems.
Digital modulation offers many advantages over analog modulation.
Greater noise immunity and robustness to channel impairments.
Easier multiplexing of various forms of information (e.g., voice,
data, and video).
Greater security.
Digital transmissions accommodate digital error-control codes
which detect and/or correct transmission errors
Support complex signal conditioning and processing techniques
such as source coding, encryption, and equalization to improve
the performance of the overall communication link.
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4.3 Digital Modulation Techniques
New multipurpose programmable digital signal processors have made
it possible to implement digital modulators and demodulators
completely in software.
Instead of having a particular modem design permanently frozen
as hardware, embedded software implementations now allow
alterations and improvements without having to redesign or
replace the modem.
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4.3 Digital Modulation Techniques - Amplitude Shift
Keying (ASK)
Represents digital data as variations in the amplitude of a carrier
wave.
In Binary ASK, where only two
symbol states are needed, the
carrier is simply turned on or off,
and the process is sometimes
referred to as ON-OFF Keying
(OOK).
If more than two symbol states
are used, then an M-ary ASK
process is adopted, an example
being the 8-ASK format shown
here.

Sourced from:
Digital Communications, Bateman, pg 105
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4.3 Digital Modulation Techniques - Frequency Shift
Keying (FSK)
The most common form of FSK is binary FSK (BFSK), the two binary
values are represented by two different frequencies near the carrier
frequency.
Message signal
x(t)
BFSK signal
y(t)
1 0 1 1 0 1
Time
Time
Time
Time
To represent Binary 1
To represent Binary 0
) 2 cos( ) (
1
1 t f A t S t =
) 2 cos( ) (
2 2
t f A t S t =
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4.3 Digital Modulation Techniques - Frequency Shift
Keying (FSK)
In Multiple FSK (MFSK), more than two frequencies are used. Each
signaling element represents more than one bit. The transmitted
MFSK signal for one signal element time can be defined as follows:.
Sourced from:
Digital Communications, Bateman, pg 143
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4.3 Digital Modulation Techniques - Frequency Shift
Keying (FSK)
Example : With f
c
=250KHz, f
d
=25KHz, and M=8 (L=3 bits), we have
the following frequency assignment for each of the 8 possible 3-bit
data combinations:
KHz Mf W bandwidth
KHz f
KHz f
KHz f
KHz f
KHz f
KHz f
KHz f
KHz f
d s
400 2
425 111
375 110
325 101
275 100
225 011
175 010
125 001
75 000
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
= = =

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
This scheme can support a data rate of:
Kbps Hz bits Lf T
d b
150 ) 25 )( 3 ( 2 2 / 1 = = =
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4.3 Digital Modulation Techniques - Phase Shift
Keying (PSK)
In PSK, the phase of the carrier signal is shifted to represent data.
BPSK, the simplest scheme uses two phases to represent the two
binary digits
To represent Binary 1
To represent Binary 0

) 2 cos( ) (
2
t t + = t f A t S
c
Message signal
x(t)
) 2 cos( ) (
1
t f A t S
c
t =
1 0 1 1 0 1
BPSK signal
y(t)
Time
Time
Time
Time
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4.3 Digital Modulation Techniques - Phase Shift
Keying (PSK)
Four-Level PSK - More efficient use of bandwidth can be achieved if
each signaling element represents more than one bit.
For example, instead of a phase shift of 180, a common encoding
technique, known as Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying (QPSK), uses
phase shifts separated by multiples of (90). 2 / t



+
+
=
10 )
4
2 cos(
00 )
4
3
2 cos(
01 )
4
3
2 cos(
11 )
4
2 cos(
) (
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t f A
t f A
t f A
t f A
t s
c
c
c
c
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4.3 Digital Modulation Techniques ASK, FSK, PSK
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4.3 Digital Modulation Techniques - Combined
Amplitude and Phase Keying (QAM/APK)
The most commonly used combination is ASK and PSK signalling.
Depending on the constraints put on the amplitude/phase relationship:
Sometimes classified as M-ary APK
Sometimes as Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM),
QAM is a logical extension of QPSK.
In QAM scheme, the transmitter send two different signals simultaneously
on same carrier frequency
Use two copies of carrier, one shifted by 90
Each carrier is ASK modulated
QAM is used on asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) and some
wireless standards.
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4.4 Constellation Diagram
A constellation diagram is a graphical representation of a signal
modulated by a digital modulation scheme
It displays the signal as a two-dimensional scatter diagram in the
complex plane at symbol sampling instants.
It shows the complex envelope of each possible symbol state.
The power efficiency is related to the minimum distance between the
points in the constellation.
The bandwidth efficiency is related to the number of points in the
constellation.
Gray coding is used to assign groups of bits to each constellation
point where adjacent constellation points differ by a single bit.
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4.4 Constellation Diagram
A constellation diagram helps us to define the amplitude and phase of a
signal when we are using two carriers, one in quadrature of the other.
The X-axis represents the in-phase carrier and the Y-axis represents
quadrature carrier.
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4.4 Constellation Diagram Examples
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4.5 Digital Modulation & Constellation Diagram - ASK
Pure ASK: carrier amplitude is used to carry symbol information
An example of 4-ASK with constellation diagram and modulation
signal set. Note: quadrature branch is not used.
4 1 ) 2 cos( ) ( s s = i where t f A t S c i i t
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4.5 Digital Modulation & Constellation Diagram - PSK
BPSK: One bit per symbol, note the mapping from bits to symbols in
constellation diagram
Modulation signal set
2 , 1 ) 2 cos( ) ( = + = i where t f A t S i c i | t
Phase separation: t
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4.5 Digital Modulation & Constellation Diagram - PSK
QPSK: Two bits per symbol with a minimum phase separation of
Modulation signal set
4 1
) 2 cos( ) (
s s
+ =
i where
t f A t S i c i | t
2 / t
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4.5 Digital Modulation & Constellation Diagram
ASK / PSK
PSK and ASK can be combined. Here is an example of 4-ary or 4-
PAM (pulse amplitude modulation) with constellation pattern and
transmitted signal s(t):
2 amplitude levels and phase shift of are combined to represent 4-
ary symbols
Note in M-ary or M-PAM, quadrature component is not used, a more
generic scheme of combining PSK/ASK is QAM, which uses both I
and Q branches.
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4.5 Digital Modulation & Constellation Diagram QAM
QAM: combines features of PSK and ASK, uses both I and Q
components, and is very bandwidth efficient.
An example of (squared) 16-
QAM.
Note for squared M-QAM, I and
Q branches are both M-ary.
Depending on the channel
quality, 64-QAM, 128-QAM, or
256-QAM are possible.
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4.6 Gray Mapping
Gray coding: adjacent constellation points only differ in a single bit
(minimum Hamming distance).
If noise or distortions cause mis-classification in the receiver, Gray
coding can minimise the bit error rate.
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Questions for Quizzes and Exams:
QPSK: Slide 17
Draw constellation diagram and waveform for each symbol as in
slide 25
8-PSK: (Exam)
State the formula and draw the waveform for each symbol as in
slide 25. Modulate the sequence 001101110001011.
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Questions for Quizzes and Exams:

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