Telecom Essentials Presentation Latest

UTL Technologies Ltd www.utltraining.
com
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Telecom Essentials
UTL Technologies Ltd www.utltraining.com
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Communication Basics
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what is communication?

Communication is the process of
exchanging information between two
different points.
The information may be sent from one
point to another point through a wire /
cable or it may be sent on a particular
frequency (wireless) on air
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Any Communication System requires the
following:
Transmitter
Channel
Receiver
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Transmitter
It is the one which transmits the
information after processing the
normal signal (modulating signal) to
modulated signal.
It has some elements like modulator
to combine low frequency
information with RF carrier and an
amplifier to amplify the signal before
giving it to the antenna.
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Receiver
It is the one, which receives the
modulated information and retrieves
the actual information from the
modulated signal.
It has an amplifier to amplify the
weak signal and a demodulator to
separate the actual information from
the modulated information.
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Channel
It is the medium through which the
information is being carried out.
If the information is being carried
over wires, it is called wire line
communication.
If the information is carried over a
particular frequency on air, it is called
wire less communication.
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Types of communication Systems :
Type Description Example
Simplex One way only FM radio,
Television etc..
Half
Duplex
Two way, only one at a
time
Walkie Talkie
Full
Duplex
Two way, both at the
same time
Mobile
Systems
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Simplex System
It is one way communication. It can
either transmit or receive. But only one
function it does at any time.
Ex: Radio, Television, GPS Rx etc.
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Half Duplex System
It can do both the functions. i.e., it can
transmit as well as receive. But only one
function at a time. That means, if it is
transmitting, it works like a transmitter and if it
is receiving, it works like a receiver.
Ex: Police Walkie-Talkie
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Full Duplex System
It can do both the (Tx and Rx) functions at a
time.
Ex: Telephone and mobile systems
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Full Duplex System
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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN WIRED & WIRELESS
COMMUNICATIONS:
The main difference between the wired and
wireless communication infrastructure is
the existence of the physical cabling.
Wired communication consists of a
physical cable between two points,
whereas wireless communication doesnt
have any physical cabling between the
points. The information will be sent on a
particular frequency over air.
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FREQUENCY: The number of cycles per unit of
time is called the frequency.
frequency is most often measured in cycles
per second (cps) or Hertz (Hz) (60 cps = 60 Hz)
1000 Hz is often referred to as 1 kHz (kilohertz).
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velocity: Distance travelled per unit time
wavelength:
wavelength is the distance between
repeating units of a propagating wave of a
given frequency. It is commonly denoted by the
greek letter (). Examples of wave-like
phenonomena are light waves and sound
waves.
Note: The wavelength, ()., is related to the
propagation velocity, v, and the frequency (f),
by = v /f.
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BANDWIDTH
Bandwidth is expressed in terms of the
difference between the highest-frequency
signal component and the lowest-frequency
signal component. Since the frequency of a
signal is measured in Hertz (the number of
cycles of change per second), a given
bandwidth is the difference in hertz
between the highest frequency the signal
uses and the lowest frequency it uses.
(or)

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BW of a signal can be defined as the
range of frequencies in which most of the
energy or Power lies.

For a Band limited signal the BW is well
defined.
When a signal is not band limited
defining BW becomes difficult and there is
no universal definition. Thus this gives
rise to BW Dilemma.
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Frequency Spectrum and its Applications

Range Frequency Band Application
VLF 3 KHz 30 KHz Submarine Application
LF 30KHz to 300 KHz Navigational Application
MF 300KHz to 3MHz Cordless Phones, AM radio
HF 3 MHz to 30 MHz Aeronautical, Amateur radio
VHF 30 MHz to 300 MHz FM radio, TV Applications
UHF 300 MHz to 3GHz TV, Mobile Communication
SHF 3 GHz to 30 GHz Point to Point, Satellite Comm.
EHF 30 GHz to 300 GHz Point to Point microwave
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MODULATION
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What is modulation?
A technique in Telecom transmission
system where by an electromagnetic
signal (the modulating signal) is encoded
into one or more of the characteristics of
the another signal (carrier signal) to
produce a third signal (modulated signal).
Whose properties are matched to the
characteristics of medium over which it is
transmitted.
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NEED OF MODULATION

To reduce the noise and interference.
Multiplexing and de multiplexing.
To decrease the Antenna size.
To transmit the audio signal to far
distance.

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TYPES OF MODULATIONS
Analog modulation.
Digital modulation
Analog modulation:
The aim of analog modulation is to
transfer the analog signal over a
channel. (or) the modulation which
deals with the analog signals

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ANALOG SIGNAL
An analog signal is any variable signal
which is continuous in both time and amplitude.
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Different types of Analog modulations are
Amplitude modulation.
Frequency modulation.
Phase modulation

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Amplitude modulation
If the Amplitude of the carrier
signal is varied according to the
amplitude of the modulating signal,
it is called Amplitude Modulation
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FREQUENCY MODULATION
If the Frequency of the carrier signal
is varied according to the Amplitude of
the modulating signal, it is called
Frequency modulation
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DIGITAL MODULATION
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Digital Modulation Techniques
There are different types of digital
modulation techniques, which are given
as follows.
Pulse code modulation.
Delta pulse code modulation.
Adaptive delta code modulation.
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PULSE CODE MODULATION
PCM is a digital representation of an
analog signal where the magnitude of the
signal is sampled regularly at uniform
intervals of time.
They are three steps to continue DIGITAL
MODULATION, they are
Sampling.
Quantization.
Coding.
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SAMPLING
: It is the process of measuring the analog
signal at different instants of time.
According to nyquist criteria Ns>=2fm,
the number of samples should be taken at
least twice the maximum frequency or
higher than that.
If not, we will not get accurate output. We
will get the distorted output and this effect
is called as Aliasing effect.
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Quantization and coding
QUANTIZATION: Approximating the
sampled signal with an accurate value.
CODING: Representing the quantizing
signal with binary form i.e 0 and 1s
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Based on the sampling theorem,
Each analog sample is assigned a binary
code
Analog samples are referred to as pulse
amplitude modulation (PAM) samples
The digital signal consists of block of n
bits, where each n-bit number is the
amplitude of a PCM pulse
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DIGITAL DATA TRANSMISSION
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Data Communication Terms
Data - entities that convey meaning, or
information
Signals - electric or electromagnetic
representations of data
Transmission - communication of data
by the propagation and processing of
signals
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Reasons for Choosing Data and Signal
Combinations
Digital data, digital signal
Equipment for encoding is less expensive
than digital-to-analog equipment
Analog data, digital signal
Conversion permits use of modern digital
transmission and switching equipment
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Digital data, analog signal
Some transmission media will only
propagate analog signals
Examples include optical fiber and
satellite
Analog data, analog signal
Analog data easily converted to analog
signal

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Analog Transmission
Transmit analog signals without regard to
content
Attenuation limits length of transmission
link
Cascaded amplifiers boost signals
energy for longer distances but cause
distortion
Analog data can tolerate distortion
Introduces errors in digital data
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Digital Transmission
Concerned with the content of the signal
Attenuation endangers integrity of data
Digital Signal
Repeaters achieve greater distance
Repeaters recover the signal and retransmit
Analog signal carrying digital data
Retransmission device recovers the digital
data from analog signal
Generates new, clean analog signal
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Digital to Analog modulation Techniques
There are many different modulation
techniques
Amplitude shift key modulation (ASK)
Frequency shift key modulation (FSK)
Binary-phase shift key modulation (BPSK)
Quadrature -phase shift key modulation
(QPSK)
Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)
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Amplitude Shift Key Modulation
In this method the amplitude of
the carrier assumes one of the two
amplitudes dependent on the logic
states of the input bit stream.

( )
= t s
( ) t f A
c
t 2 cos 1 binary
0 binary
0
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A typical output waveform of an ASK
modulator is shown in the figure below
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Frequency Shift Key Modulation
In this method the frequency of the
carrier is changed to two different
frequencies depending on the logic state of
the input bit stream.
The typical output waveform of an FSK is
shown below.
Notice that logic high causes the centre
frequency to increase to a maximum and a
logic low causes the centre frequency to
decrease to a minimum
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Values represented by different
frequencies (near carrier)
Less susceptible to error than ASK
Up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
High frequency radio
Even higher frequency on LANs using
co-axial cable.
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Two binary digits represented by two different
frequencies near the carrier frequency.
( )
= t s
( ) t f A
1
2 cos t
( ) t f A
2
2 cos t
1 binary
0 binary
where f1 and f2 are offset from carrier
frequency fc by equal but opposite amounts
Binary Frequency-Shift Keying (BFSK)
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FSK
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Phase Shift Key Modulation
With this method the phase of the carrier
changes between different phases
determined by the logic states of the input
bit stream.
Phase of carrier signal is shifted to
represent data
Differential PSK
Phase shifted relative to previous
transmission rather than some reference
signal
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Types of PSK
There are several types of phase shift key
(PSK) methods.
Two-phase (2 PSK)
Four-phase (4 PSK)
Eight-phase (8 PSK)
Sixteen-phase (16 PSK)
Sixteen- quadrature amplitude (16 QAM)

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The 16 QAM is a composite modulator
consisting of amplitude modulation and
phase modulation. The 2 PSK, 4 PSK, 8
PSK and 16 PSK modulators are generally
referred to as binary phase shift key
(BPSK) modulators and the QAM
modulators are referred to as quadrature
phase shift key (QPSK) modulators.
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Two-Phase Shift Key Modulation (BPSK)
In this modulator the carrier assumes one
of two phases to represent binary digits. Logic
1 produces no phase change and logic 0
produces a 180 phase change.
( )
= t s
( ) t f A
c
t 2 cos
( ) t t + t f A
c
2 cos
1 binary
0 binary
=
( ) t f A
c
t 2 cos
( ) t f A
c
t 2 cos
1 binary
0 binary
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BPSK
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Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
Four-level PSK (QPSK) : Each element
represents more than one bit
( )
= t s
|
.
|
\
|
+
4
2 cos
t
t t f A
c
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|
.
|
\
|
+
4
3
2 cos
t
t t f A
c
|
.
|
\
|

4
3
2 cos
t
t t f A
c
|
.
|
\
|

4
2 cos
t
t t f A
c
01
00
10
60
QPSK
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8PSK
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Quadrature amplitude modulation
Quadrature amplitude modulation,
or QAM, is a big name for a relatively
simple technique. It is simply a
combination of amplitude modulation and
phase shift keying
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TRANSMISSION MEDIUM
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TRANSMISSION MEDIUM
The media through, which transmission
takes place is called as Transmission Media.
There are two types of transmission
media. They are
GUIDED MEDIA
UNGUIDED MEDIA.
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GUIDED MEDIA
This uses a cabling system that guides the
data signals along a specific path. The data
signals are bound by the cabling system. This
is also known as bound media.
Different types of Guided media are as follows.
1. TWISTED PAIR
2. CO-AXIAL CABLE
3. FIBER OPTICS
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TWISTED PAIR
Twisted pair is the ordinary copper wire
that connects home and many business
computers to the telephone company.
To reduce crosstalk or electromagnetic
induction between pairs of wires, two
insulated copper wires are twisted around
each other. Each connection on twisted pair
requires both wires
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Types of twisted pair cables:
There are two types of twisted pair cables.
They are,
UNSHILEDED TWISTED PAIR (UTP)
SHEILDED TWISTED PAIR (STP)
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Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the
most popular and is generally the best
option.
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Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable
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Shielded Twisted Pair Cable
If twisted pair is enclosed in a
shield that functions as a ground.
This is known as shielded twisted
pair (STP).
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Shielded Twisted Pair Cable
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A disadvantage of UTP is that it
may be susceptible to radio and
electrical frequency interference.
Shielded twisted pair (STP) is
suitable for environments with
electrical interference; however, the
extra shielding can make the cables
quite bulky.
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FIBER OPTICS
Fiber optics (optical fibers) are long, thin
strands of very pure glass about the diameter of a
human hair.
When light ray passes from one medium
to another (from glass to air) ,the ray is
Refracted or bent at the boundary, the
amount of refraction depends on the
properties of two media
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Light rays in different medium
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What is critical Angle?
Critical Angle
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Critical Angle?
The least angle of incidence at which
total internal reflection takes place.
The angle of incidence in a denser
medium, at an interface between the
denser and less dense medium, at which
the light is refracted along the interface
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When the critical angle is exceeded,
the light is totally reflected back into the
denser medium.
The critical angle varies with the
indices of refraction of the two media with
the relationship:
sin Ic = n/n where Ic is the critical
angle; n the refractive index of the less
dense medium; and n the refractive index of
the denser medium.

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The formula for critical angle is shown
where c is the critical angle, n 1 is the
refractive index of the less dense medium, and
n 2 is the refractive index of the denser
medium.
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Critical Angle: In the above diagram, light is lost
along the interface until reaching the Critical
angle of 60 degrees.

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Elements of Fiber
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Elements of Fiber:
Core - Thin glass center of the fiber where the
light travels
Cladding - Outer optical material surrounding
the core that reflects the light back into the
core
Buffer coating - Plastic coating that protects
the fiber from damage and moisture
Hundreds or thousands of these optical fibers
are arranged in bundles in optical cables. The
bundles are protected by the cable's outer
covering, called a jacket.
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Optical fibers come in two types:
Single-mode fibers
Multi-mode fibers
Types of Fibers:
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Single-mode fibers have small cores (about
3.5 x 10-4 inches or 9 microns in diameter) and
transmit infrared laser light (wavelength =
1,300 to 1,550 nanometers).
Multi-mode fibers have larger cores (about
2.5 x 10-3 inches or 62.5 microns in diameter)
and transmit infrared light (wavelength = 850 to
1,300 nm) from light emitting diodes (LEDs).
Some optical fibers can be made from plastic.
These fibers have a large core (0.04 inches or
1 mm diameter) and transmit visible red light
(wavelength = 650 nm) from LEDs.
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Multimode Step-Index
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Density of the core remains constant from
the center to the edges.
Multiple beams from a light source move
through the core in different paths hence
the term Multimode.
Due to different beams arriving at different
times at the receiver the signal is distorted
(propagation delays). Thus this constant
density multimode fiber finds less
applications.
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Multimode Graded-Index
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Multiple beams from a light source move through
the core in different paths hence the term
Multimode.
The distortion of signal of step index is reduced in
Graded Index Fiber by Having variable densities.
(Index refers to index of refraction). density is
highest at the center of the core and decreases
gradually to its lowest at the edge. Each density
difference causes each beam to refract into a
curve.
Also different beams intersect at regular intervals.
Placing the receiver carefully at one of the
intersection can construct the signal with greater
Precision.
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Single Mode
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Single mode fiber
In single mode fiber the diameter is
smaller & the density of core is lower. The
decrease in density and dia results in
critical angle almost equal to 90 degrees to
make the propagation almost horizontal.
All the beams arrive at the receiver
together that can be combined with less
distortion. Core sizes vary from 10 to50
microns, while the cladding varies from 100
to 150 microns.
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Fiber Construction
Fiber Construction
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How Does an Optical Fiber Transmit Light?
Suppose you want to shine a flashlight
beam down a long, straight hallway. Just point
the beam straight down the hallway -- light
travels in straight lines, so it is no problem.
What if the hallway has a bend in it? You could
place a mirror at the bend to reflect the light
beam around the corner. What if the hallway is
very winding with multiple bends? You might
line the walls with mirrors and angle the beam
so that it bounces from side-to-side all along
the hallway. This is exactly what happens in an
optical fiber
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The light in a fiber-optic cable travels
through the core (hallway) by constantly
bouncing from the cladding (mirror-lined
walls), a principle called total internal
reflection.
Because the cladding does not absorb any
light from the core, the light wave can travel
great distances. However, some of the light
signal degrades within the fiber, mostly due
to impurities in the glass.
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The extent that the signal degrades
depends on the purity of the glass and
the wavelength of the transmitted light
(for example, 850 nm = 60 to 75
percent/km; 1,300 nm = 50 to 60
percent/km; 1,550 nm is greater than 50
percent/km).
Some premium optical fibers show much
less signal degradation -- less than 10
percent/km at 1,550 nm.

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Fiber optic Elements
Light source: LED, Laser Diode.
Receiver: Photodiode, PIN diode.
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Advantages of optical fiber
(over Copper & Coaxial cables)
Low Signal Loss in Fiber Optics. The loss is
nearly >20 dB/km in conventional medium and
0.2 dB/km to a maximum of 2 dB/km in Optical
Fiber
Long Distance Transmission. 60km to 300 km.
Due to low attenuation, repeaters are needed
about every 60kms compared to every 5kms for
copper, reducing cost.
Maintenance is very high for conventional
medium.
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High Band width. Conventional medium
supports 500 MHz to 700 MHz. Fiber Optics
supports several GHz. Todays networks
support Tera Hertz.
Since it uses light, it is not affected by power
surges, EM interference or power failures.
Also not affected by corrosive chemicals in
the air
Fiber is small in size (thin) and less in weight.
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Fiber is a dielectric material and no need for
electrical power, hence no short circuits and no
earthing is required.
Fiber does not leak light and it is difficult to tap,
thus security is highest
Reliability is high. Only failures in OFC is cable
cuts.

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Disadvantages
Fiber optic cable is more expensive.
Needs skilled job for cable joints by
splicing.
Sophisticated equipment is required.
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UNGUIDED TRANSMISSION
This consists of means of data
signals to travel but nothing to
guide them along a specific path.
The data signals are not bound to
a cabling media and as such are
often called unbound media.
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They are two types of unguided
transmission are there, they are,
Line of sight communication
Satellite communication
UNGUIDED TRANSMISSION
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LINE OF SIGHT COMMUNICATION
This type of communication uses
parabolic dishes of different diameters
(0.6,0.8,1.2mts etc.).
These are fixed at certain height and
focuses a narrow beam .
It achieves line of sight transmission to
receiving antenna.

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Ground wave propagation follows the
curvature of the Earth.
Ground waves have carrier frequencies
up to 2 MHz.
AM radio is an example of ground wave
propagation
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Ionospheric propagation bounces
off of the Earth's ionospheric
layer in the upper atmosphere.
It is sometimes called double hop
propagation. It operates in the
frequency range of 30 - 85 MHz.
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Because it depends on the
Earth's ionosphere, it changes
with the weather and time of day.
The signal bounces off of the
ionosphere and back to earth.
Ham radios operate in this range.
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Line of sight propagation transmits
exactly in the line of sight.
The receive station must be in the view
of the transmit station.
It is sometimes called space waves or
Tropospheric propagation.
It is limited by the curvature of the
Earth for ground-based stations (100
km, from horizon to horizon).
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Terrestrial Microwave Line of Sight communication
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Reflected waves can cause problems.
Examples of line of sight propagation are:
FM radio, microwave and satellite.
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Satellite Communication
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Description of communication satellite
Microwave relay station
Used to link two or more ground-based
microwave transmitter/receivers
Receives transmissions on one frequency
band (uplink), amplifies or repeats the
signal, and transmits it on another
frequency (downlink)
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Applications
Television distribution
Long-distance telephone transmission
Private business networks
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Case study1:
Transmission medias used in GSM,
CDMA, etc.. (mobile Communication)
between different elements of the
network.
Comparison of Optical Fiber with Micro
wave (Line of sight) communication.

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DATA TRANSMISSION
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Synchronous Transmission
The transmission of data in which both
stations are synchronized.
Codes are sent from the transmitting
station to the receiving station to establish the
synchronization, and data is then transmitted in
continuous streams
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Synchronous Transmission
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Asynchronous Transmission
The transmission of data in which each
character is a self-contained unit with its
own start and stop bits.
Intervals between characters may be
uneven.
It is the common method of transmission
between a computer and a modem,
although the modem may switch to
synchronous transmission to communicate
with the other modem. Also called
"start/stop transmission."
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Asynchronous Transmission
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Error detection
Error detection is the ability to detect errors
caused by noise or other impairments during
transmission from the transmitter to the receiver
Error correction has an additional feature
that enables identification and correction of the
errors
Error correction
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Parity Check
Basic method of checking data for errors
during a transmission or on a data storage
mechanism.
Parity works by setting a parity bit to an
even or odd number.
If the binary stream contains eight 0's or 1's,
for example, we know that this is an even
number; however, if the parity bit indicates that
this number should be an odd number we would
be able to easily determine that the data is
corrupt.
122
Even Parity & Odd Parity
Parity bit appended to a block of data
Even parity
Added bit ensures an even number of 1s
Odd parity
Added bit ensures an odd number of 1s
Example, 7-bit character [1110001]
Even parity [11100010]
Odd parity [11100011
123
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
The CRC is a very powerful but easily
implemented technique to obtain data reliability.
The CRC technique is used to protect blocks of
data called Frames.
Using this technique, the transmitter appends
an extra n- bit sequence to every frame called
Frame Check Sequence (FCS). The FCS
holds redundant information about the frame
that helps the transmitter detect errors in the
frame.
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The CRC is one of the most used
techniques for error detection in data
communications. The technique gained
its popularity because it combines three
advantages:
Extreme error detection capabilities.
Little overhead.
Ease of implementation.
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Asynchronous Data Error Detection
Parity has been used to detect errors in
Asynchronous data stream.
The parity bit is an added error-detection bit
included with each character of the
asynchronous data stream.
In one respect, this is a disadvantage of using
parity. It adds additional bit to be transmitted
with each character, reducing the efficiency of
the data transfer.
In other words, it takes more time to transmit a
data character with a parity bit than to send
one without a parity bit.
126
1. What is the efficiency of asynchronously transmitting
an ASCII character with 1 start and 2 stop bits? Give
two answers, one including the parity bit and one
without parity for comparison purposes.
An ASCII character contains 7 bits of character
information. Transmitting an ASCII character
asynchronously as described above includes 3 overhead
bits (1 start and 2 stop bits) as well as a parity bit. Total
bits transmitted is 11 with parity and 10 without parity.
The efficiency in transmitting an ASCII character
message without parity is 7/10, or 70%. And with parity is
7/11 or 63.7%.
127
2. What is the state of the parity bit for an ASCII
character R, using both even and odd parity
systems?
Sol: An ASCII character R is 101 0010 in binary.
The total number of 1s in the character is
three, an odd number. For an odd parity system,
the parity bit is a 0 to keep the count of 1s odd.
While in the even parity systems, the parity bit
is set to make the total number of 1s even. (3+1=4).

128
3. Which parity (odd or even) is used with the ASCII
asynchronous data stream shown below? Two stop
and 1 start bits are being used with each character.
Which character has an error in it?
Data are shown starting with the first received bit
(usually the LSB) at the left side of the screen where
the sweep begins. Succeeding bits follow in correct
sequence until the last bit is displayed. What is the
intended message?
0000 1001 0110 1010 0110 1100 0010 1101 1000
0011 1111 0100 0010 011.
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0000 1001 0110 1010 0110 1100 0010 1101
1000 0011 1111 0100 0010 011
It shows the bits as they are sent and displays
them left (LSB) to right. The message starts with
the first character sent on the left.
Each character starts with 1 start bit and ends
with 2 stop bits. Adding the parity bit and 7 code
bits, each transmitted character contains 11 bits.
The first step is to separate the message into
characters:
0000 1001 011 0101 0011 011 0000 1011 011
0000 0111 111 0100 0010 011
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0000 1001 011 0101 0011 011 0000 1011 011
0000 0111 111 0100 0010 011
Next strip out the start and stop bits:
0001 0010 1010 0110 0001 0110 0000 1111
1000 0100
Then determine the parity used and the character that
has a bad parity bit. Most of the characters in the
message use even parity with a parity error in the
middle character.
Remove the parity bits and reverse the order of each
character to place the LSB of each on the right to
facilitate their interpretation:
100 1000 110 0101 110 1000 111 0000 010 0001
131
Convert each binary group to its ASCII
equivalent using the ASCII table.
It is the combination of characters H e h p !

The error shows up in the middle character.
100 1000 110 0101 110 1000 111 0000
010 0001
132
What if 2 bits in a single characters are bad?
A 2 bit change in a single character causes the
parity condition to be the same as if an error
did not occur. The sum of 1s in both cases
would result in the same state of the parity bit.
On the surface, this may seem like a limitation
of parity checking for error detection.
Essentially, it is parity detection is reliable
only if a single error occurs in a character.
Thus, parity checking is limited to
environments that experience infrequent errors
in data transmissions.
133
To correct errors detected using parity, the
receiving station can only request that the
message containing the error be retransmitted.
A system that is set to request retransmission
automatically in response to detecting an error
includes Automatic Request for retransmission,
also known as Automatic Repeat Request
(ARQ) processing within its communications
software.
134
LRC Matrix Example
135
136
Multiple Access Methods
137
It determines how several users
can share a medium with minimum
or no interference.
Multiple Access Method
138
Types of Access Methods
Access Methods
FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

139

Frequency Division Multiple Access
(FDMA) :

An approach to sharing a channel by
separating the simultaneous users in
frequency
140
f
c
t
FDMA
141
Time division multiple access
(TDMA)

Approach for allotting single-channel
usage amongst many users, by
dividing the channel into slots of time
during which each user has access to
the medium.
142

f
t
c
2.17.1
TDMA
143
f
c
2.18.1
t
TDMA / FDD
144
Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA) :

Approach for allotting the channel
usage amongst many users, by
converting the speech signals of all
users in to different codes.

145

f
t
c
CDMA
146
User Data : 1011 (to be transmitted)
PN Code : 110101
Transmitting Data : 001010 110101 001010 001010
Receiving Data : 001010 110101 001010 001010
PN Code : 110101
Final Data : 111111 000000 111111 111111
Received Data : 1011
How CDMA uses codes to the actual data?
147
How CDMA uses codes to the actual data?
148
What we do, we can undo
149
Generations of Mobile Communication
150
151
EVOLUTION MOBILE COMMUNICATION
AMPS
TACS
NMT
D-AMPS
IS-95
GSM
ANALOG
1G
DIGITAL
2G
CDMA 2000
UMTS/
W-CDMA
IMT-2000
3G
GPRS
2.5G
152
ANALOG MOBILE COMMUNICATION
AMPS
TACS
NMT
ANALOG
SYSTEM
1G
Advanced Mobile Phone Service
US based, 800 MHz band
Total Access Communication
System UK based, AMPS in 900
MHz band
Nordic Mobile Telephone System
Scandinavian, Both in 450 MHz
and 900 MHz band
153
DIGITAL MOBILE COMMUNICATION
Dual mode AMPS
US, Analog signaling and Digital voice
coding

IS-95
US, CDMA based

GLOBAL SYSTEMS FOR MOBILE
COMMUNICATIONS
European standard, Both in 900 MHz
& 1800 MHz band
D-AMPS
IS-95
GSM
DIGITAL
SYSTEM
2G
154
Technology
1G
2G
2.5G 3G 4G
Design began 1970
1980
1985 1990 2000
Implemen-
tation
1984
1991
1999 2002 2010?
Service Analog voice
and
data
Digital voice and
data (SMS)
Higher-
capacity data
Transfer
(internet)
Higher-
capacity data
Transfer with
more data
rates
Higher
capacity
multimedia
Standards AMPS,TACS,
CDMA,GSM,
GPRS,EDGE,
Cdma
20001XRTT
UMTS/WCDM
A,
CDMA2000
1xEVDO etc
Single
standard
Data Rate 1.9kbps
14.4kbps
384kbps 2Mbps 200Mbps
Multiplexing FDMA
TDMA,CDMA
TDMA,CDMA CDMA CDMA?
Comparison of 4G with Other Mobile Technologies
UTL Technologies Ltd
www.utltraining.com
155
Case Study 2:
Different Generations in mobile
Communication.
Multiple Access Methods used in that
particular generation.
Communication Methods used in that
particular Generation.
Data rates in different generations.
156
WAVE PROPAGATION
157
Antenna radiates electromagnetic waves , and
these are waves travel, outward in all directions
with a velocity of 3*10^8m/secs.
These waves are transverse in nature and are
therefore called transverse electromagnetic
waves (TEM).
For this type of waves, the electric field (E),
the magnetic field (H), and the direction of
propagation along which the wave travels with
Phase velocity (Vp) are mutually at right angles
158
159
PROPAGATION OF WAVES
There are number of mechanisms by which
radio waves may travel from transmitting
antenna to a receiving antenna. The more
important of these are
Ground waves
Sky wave
Space or Troposphere waves.
The ground wave some times also called as
surface waves can exist when the transmitting
and receiving antenna are close to surface of
the earth and vertically polarized.
160
The Sky wave represents energy that reaches
the receiving antenna as result of bending of
the wave path, introduces by the ionization of
upper atmosphere
The space wave represents energy that travels
from the transmitting to the receiving antenna
in the earth troposphere, the portion of the
earth atmosphere in first 15 kms adjacent to
earth surface.
161
The space wave commonly consists of two
components; one of these rays that is that travels
directly from transmitter to receiver. While the
other that reaches the receiver as a result of
reflection from the surface of earth.
Ground waves are generally useful at very low
frequencies (10to30kHz) and low frequencies
(30to300khz).
AM radio broad casting medium frequency band
of (300to3000kHz) are transferred primarily by the
ground waves.
162
ANTENNA
An antenna is a specialized transducer that
converts radio-frequency (RF) fields into
alternating current (AC) or vice-versa. There
are two basic types: the receiving antenna,
which intercepts RF energy and delivers AC
to electronic equipment, and the transmitting
antenna, which is fed with AC from
electronic equipment and generates an RF
field.

163
Isotropic Radiator:
An isotropic radiator is a theoretical point
source of waves which exhibits the same
magnitude or properties when measured
in all directions. It has no preferred
direction of radiation. It radiates uniformly
in all directions over a sphere centered
on the source. It is a reference radiator
with which other sources are compared.
164

Directional antenna
Antenna having a preference for a particular
direction and radiating (receiving) a signal
more efficiently in (from) this direction than in
other directions.
Isotropic antenna
Antenna transmitting (receiving) equal
radiation in (from) all directions. Isotropic
antenna is a idealized device that does not
exist in reality. It is usually taken as a
reference when measuring directivity of actual
antennas.
165
Omni directional antenna
Antenna transmitting (receiving) equal radiation
in (from) all directions. A typical example is a
whip antenna. Whip antenna's radiation power
is distributed equally in all directions in a plane
perpendicular to the whip.
Dipole antenna
The dipole antenna or dipole aerial is one of the
most important and also one of the most widely
used types of antenna. It can be used on its
own, or there are many other types of antenna
that use the dipole as the basic element within
the antenna.
166
Basic dipole facts:
The name dipole means two poles and
the antenna does in fact consist of two
"poles" or sections. These are normally
equal in length, making the antenna what
is termed a centre fed antenna.
167
The power is applied to the dipole
antenna itself through a feeder.
Conversely if the dipole antenna is used
for receiving, the received signals are
taken away to the receiver through a
feeder. The feeder serves to transfer the
power to or from the antenna with as little
loss as possible
168
169
The basic dipole antenna configuration
The most common form of dipole has an
electrical length of half a wavelength. As a
result this antenna is called a half wave
dipole. As before the lengths of the wires
are both the same. As the total length of the
dipole is a half wavelength, this makes
each section or leg of the dipole a quarter
wavelength long.
170
171
The folded dipole antenna
The folded dipole antenna is probably only
ever seen as a TV antenna. It exhibits an
impedance of 300 ohms whereas a half wave
dipole is 75 ohms.
172
One powerful advantage of a folded
dipole antenna is that is has a wide
bandwidth.
This is the reason it was often used as a
TV antenna for multi channel use.
Folded dipole antennas were mainly
used in conjunction with Yagi antennas
173
The Yagi antenna
The Yagi antenna or more correctly, the
Yagi - Uda antenna was developed by
Japanese scientists in the 1930's.
It consists of a half wave dipole, a rear
"reflector" and may or may not have one
or more forward "directors". These are
collectively referred to as the "elements
of Yagi Antenna.
174
175
Parabolic antenna
The parabolic antenna is a high-gain reflector
antenna used for radio, television and data
communications, and also for radio location
(RADAR), on the UHF and SHF parts of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
The relatively short wavelength of
electromagnetic (radio) energy at these
frequencies allows reasonably sized reflectors
to exhibit the very desirable highly directional
response for both receiving and transmitting.
176
177
NOISE
Noise : In communications, interference
that destroys the integrity of signals on a
line.
Noise can come from a variety of
sources, including radio waves, nearby
electrical wires, lightening, and bad
connections.
178
Types of Noise
Thermal Noise : The noise generated by
thermal agitation of electrons in a conductor. It
is also called as Johnson Noise. (Or)
white noise generated by thermal agitation of
electrons in a conductor or electronic device.
It is produced by the thermal agitation of the
charges in an electric conductor and is
proportional to the absolute temperature of the
conductor.
179
:

Formula for the rms noise voltage:

Boltzmann constant kB =1,380650510
-23
J/K
(joule/kelvin);
Absolute temperature T in kelvin K =273.15 + in C
Bandwidth being considered f =f2 - f1
= fmax - fmin in Hz; 20 kHz - 20 Hz = 19980 Hz
R= the resistance of the circuit element.

180
Noise Power
Noise Power: The noise power, P, in
watts, is given by P = kT f, where k is
Boltzmanns constant in joules per Kelvin,
T is the conductor temperature in kelvins,
and f is the bandwidth in Hertz.
181
Noise Figure: Noise figure NF or noise factor F:
The Noise factor of a transducer at a
specified input frequency is the ratio of (a/b)
where "a and b" are:
a) the available Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) at
the signal generator terminals per unit bandwidth
when the temperature of the input termination
(generator or source) is (usually 20C = 293.15 K)
and the bandwidth is limited by the transducer, to
b) the available SNR per unit bandwidth at the
output terminals of the transducer.
Noise figure NF = 10 log (noise factor F) in dB
182
Noise temperature Te = T0 (F - 1)
T0 is standard temperature, usually
20C = 293.15 K
183
Noise Figure of Cascaded Amplifier
Noise Figure of Cascaded Amplifier :
In a cascade amplifier the final stage sees an
input signal that consists of the original signal
and noise amplified by each successive stage.
Each stage in the cascade chain amplifies
signals and noise from previous stages and
contributes some noise of its own. The overall
noise factor for a cascade amplifier can be
calculated from the Fris noise equation:
184
where
F is the overall noise factor of N stages in
cascade
F1 is the noise factor of stage 1
F2 is the noise factor of stage 2
Fn is the noise factor of the nth stage
G1 is the gain of stage 1
G2 is the gain of stage 2
Gn-1 is the gain of stage (n-1).
185
Atmospheric Noise :
Atmospheric noise is radio noise caused
by natural atmospheric processes,
primarily lightning discharges in
thunderstorms.
All atmospheric noise is created by
weather. More specifically, this noise
comes from lightning flashes, with most of
the noise caused by cloud-to-ground
flashes because the currents in those
strokes are much stronger than those of
cloud-to-cloud flashes.
186
Shot Noise
Shot noise in electronic devices consists
of random fluctuations of the electric
current in an electrical conductor, which
are caused by the fact that the current is
carried by discrete charges (electrons).
This occurs not only in p-n junctions but
also in any conductor.
187
Impulse noise is a category of (acoustic)
noise which includes unwanted, almost
instantaneous (impulse-like) sharp sounds.
Noises of the kind are usually caused by
electromagnetic interference, scratches on
the recording disks, and ill synchronization
in digital recording and communication.
Impulse noise
188
OSI reference model
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model
was developed by the International Standards
Organization.
We can remember the layers in sequence by
remembering the sentence All People Seem To
Need Data Processing.
189
190
Physical Layer:
Its responsible for conversion of stream
of bits into signals ,that can be
transmitted on the senders side. At the
receiving side the signal is transferred
back into the bit stream.
OSI reference model layers
191
Data Link Layer
The main task of this layer involves
accessing the medium error correction
and detection flow control, services to
network layer, framing and
synchronization .It deals with frames for
error detection CRC method and error
correction Hamming code.
192
Network Layer
It deals with Packets. It is responsible
for routing and addressing of the packets,
Connection control if traffic is high. Also
responsible for establishing, maintaining
and terminating.
193
Transport Layer
It is the heart of the whole layers. It
accepts data from session layer passes
data and split into smaller blocks to
network layer.
It is responsible for the end to end
connectivity. Efficient and cost effective
delivery .It also provides error free
delivery without any duplication.
194
Session Layer
It provides a means for the application
to establish and use a connection called
session. Data exchange, dialogue
conversation checking and recovery.
Where failure between checkpoints is
also provided by this layer.
195
Presentation Layer

It is concerned with syntax and
symantax of data exchange. It also
provides network security and privacy
(Encryption and Decryption).
196
Application Layer
It has user programs to do actual work
for which the computers are purchased.
It also provides the services to
presentation layer.
Ex: File transfer between two different
systems, Email, Picture storage.
197
Interaction between layers
198
Each layer provides services to upper layer.
Each layer communicates some information.
Message (M) is produced by an application
process in layer-5 and given to layer-4.
It puts header in front of msg, and passes to
layer-3.
Header includes control information like
sequence number. In some layers headers
can be also have time and size and other
control information.
199
Generally there is no limit to size of message
sequence in Layer-3 it is broken up into
smaller units called packets, there M is divided
into M1 & M2
In layer -3 decision is made to pass packet
through the lines.
Layer-2 adds, both its header and trailer, and
then finally gives to layer-1.
At the receiving, machine as message moves
upwards, header & trailer are stripped off.
200
SWITCHING
A provision of connection between two or
more networks to permit transmission
and reception.
Types of switching:
Circuit switching
Packet Switching
201
Circuit Switching
A link establishes between two
users during the total call duration.
The Circuit ones establishes
produces no more propagation delay.
Time between end of dialing &
ringing is 10sec and in that time is
hunting for the line to be connected.

202
A type of communication in which a
dedicated channel or circuit is
established for the duration of
transmission. The most similar circuit
switching network is the telephone
system, which links together wire
segments to create a single unbroken
line for each telephone call.

203
Circuit switching systems are ideal for
communication that requires data to be
transmitted in real time. These are
sometimes called connection oriented
n/w dedicated bandwidth is allocated for
entire duration of the call.

204
Advantages:
Good interactive response.
Efficient for transferring large block of
data.
Simple protocol.
Ideal for voice.
205
Packet Switching
It refers to protocols in which the
messages are divided into packets before they
are sent, each packet is then transmitted
individually and can be even follow different
routes to its destinations. Once all the packets
forming a message receive at the destination,
they are recompiled into the original msg.
Currently this is the most popular method
for data transmission. In this, each message is
split into smaller units called packets and each
packet has an identity header destination.
206
Advantages:
Response time is shorter than Message
switching
Can be used by the digital network
System cannot be congested due to a
standard packet length
HEADER USER DATA TRAILER
Packet format:
207
BASIC MODES OF OPERATION OF
PACKET SWITCHING COMMUNICATION
208
DATA GRAM
It is used when a Message to be sent is greater
than the maximum size of the packet.
Message splitted into packets by Transmitter
stations are send to its node and Each
datagram must have the full destination address.
Each packet treated independently
Packets can take any practical route
Packets may arrive out of order
Packets may go missing
Up to receiver to re-order packets and recover
from missing packets.
209
210
A virtual circuit is a circuit or path
between points in a network that appears
to be a discrete, physical path but is
actually a managed pool of circuit
resources from which specific circuits are
allocated as needed to meet traffic
requirements
211
A permanent virtual circuit (PVC) is a virtual
circuit that is permanently available to the user
just as though it were a dedicated or leased
line continuously reserved for that user. A
switched virtual circuit (SVC) is a virtual circuit
in which a connection session is set up for a
user only for the duration of a connection.
212
213
Frame Relay
Frame relay consists of an efficient data
transmission technique used to send digital
information quickly and cheaply in a relay of
frames to one or many destinations from one
or many end-points.
Network providers commonly implement frame
relay for voice and data as an encapsulation
technique, used between local area networks
(LANs) over a wide area network (WAN).
The frame-relay network handles the
transmission over a frequently-changing path
transparent to all end-users.
214
Frame Relay Devices
DTEs generally are considered to be terminating
equipment for a specific network and typically are
located on the premises of a customer. In fact,
they may be owned by the customer. Examples of
DTE devices are terminals, personal computers,
routers, and bridges.
DCEs are carrier-owned internetworking devices.
The purpose of DCE equipment is to provide
clocking and switching services in a network,
which are the devices that actually transmit data
through the WAN. In most cases, these are packet
switches. Figure 10-1 shows the relationship
between the two categories of devices.
215
216
X.25
It is an International Telecommunication
Union-Telecommunication Standardization
Sector (ITU-T) protocol standard for WAN
communications that defines how connections
between user devices and network devices are
established and maintained.
X.25 is designed to operate effectively
regardless of the type of systems connected to
the network. It is typically used in the packet-
switched networks (PSNs), such as the
telephone companies.
217
Subscribers are charged based on their use of
the network. The development of the X.25
standard was initiated in the 1970s. At that
time, there was a need for WAN protocols
capable of providing connectivity across public
data networks (PDNs). X.25 is now
administered as an international standard by
the ITU-T.

218
X.25 Devices and Protocol Operation

X.25 network devices fall into three general
categories:
Data terminal equipment (DTE),
Data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE), and
Packet-switching exchange (PSE).
219
Data terminal equipment devices are end
systems that communicate across the X.25
network. They are usually terminals, personal
computers, or network hosts, and are located
on the premises of individual subscribers.
DCE devices are communications devices,
such as modems and packet switches, that
provide the interface between DTE devices
and a PSE, and are generally located in the
carrier's facilities.
220
PSEs are switches that compose the
bulk of the carrier's network. They
transfer data from one DTE device to
another through the X.25 PSN. Figure
below illustrates the relationships among
the three types of X.25 network devices

221
DTEs, DCEs, and PSEs Make Up an X.25 N/W
222
Packet Assembler/Disassembler
The packet assembler/disassembler (PAD) is a
device commonly found in X.25 networks. PADs
are used when a DTE device, such as a character-
mode terminal, is too simple to implement the full
X.25 functionality.
The PAD is located between a DTE device and
a DCE device, and it performs three primary
functions:
buffering (storing data until a device is ready to
process it),
packet assembly and
packet disassembly.
223
The PAD buffers data sent to or from the DTE
device. It also assembles outgoing data into
packets and forwards them to the DCE device.
(This includes adding an X.25 header.)
Finally, the PAD disassembles incoming
packets before forwarding the data to the DTE.
(This includes removing the X.25 header.)
Figure 17-2 illustrates the basic operation of
the PAD when receiving packets from the X.25
WAN.
224

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