6th Edition Charles G. Morris and Albert A.

Maisto
PowerPoint Presentation by H. Lynn Bradman Metropolitan Community College

Understanding Psychology

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Chapter 1

The Science of Psychology

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What Is Psychology?
Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Psychologists are interested in every aspect of human thought and behavior.

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Fields of Psychology
Developmental Physiological Experimental Personality Clinical and Counseling Social Industrial and Organizational
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Developmental Psychology
Studies human mental and physical growth from conception to death
Child psychologists Adolescent psychologists Life-span psychologists

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Physiological Psychology
Investigates the biological basis of human behavior
Neuropsychologists Psychobiologists Behavioral geneticists

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Experimental Psychology
Learning Memory Sensation Perception Cognition Motivation Emotion
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Personality Psychology
Personality psychologists study the differences among individuals.

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Clinical and Counseling Psychology

Clinical psychologists are interested primarily in the diagnosis, cause, and treatment of psychological disorders. Counseling psychologists are concerned primarily with normal problems of adjustments in life.

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Social Psychology
Social psychologists study how people influence one another.

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Industrial and Organizational Psychology

Psychology applied to the workplace I/O psychologists are interested in selecting and training personnel Improving productivity and working conditions The impact of computerization and automation on workers

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Enduring Issues in Psychology

Person/Situation Nature/Nurture Stability/Change Diversity/Universality Mind/Body

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Psychology as Science
Scientific method Theory Hypotheses

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Scientific Method
An approach to knowledge that relies on a systematic method of generating hypotheses, collecting data, and explaining the data.

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Theory
The systematic explanation of a phenomenon.

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Hypothesis
A specific, testable prediction derived from a theory.

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Goals of Psychology
Describe Explain Predict Control or Influence behavior

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The Growth of Psychology

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The "New Psychology:" A Science of the Mind

Since the time of Plato and Aristotle, people have wondered and written about human behavior and mental processes.
During the late 1800s, they began to apply the scientific method to questions that had puzzled philosophers for centuries. Psychology came into being as a formal, scientific discipline separate from philosophy.

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The History of Psychology

The history of psychology can be divided into three main stages:
The emergence of a science of the mind The behaviorist decade And the "cognitive revolution"

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Structuralism: Wundt and Titchener

Structuralism was concerned with identifying the units of conscious experience. 1879: Wundt founds psychologys first laboratory at Leipzig. Titchener subdivided consciousness into physical sensations, feelings, and images.

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Functionalism: William James

Functionalism was concerned with the ongoing use of conscious experience. James argued that consciousness cannot be broken into elements. James coined the phrase stream of consciousness.

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Sigmund Freud: Psychodynamic Psychology

Freud focused on the unconscious determinants of behavior. Freud developed a method of therapy called psychoanalysis.

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Behaviorism: Watson and Skinner

Behaviorism is only concerned with behavior that can be observed and measured. Watson founded behaviorism. Skinner focused on the role of reinforcement.

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The Cognitive Revolution

Wertheimer, Khler, and Koffka were interested in tricks of perception. The Gestalt movement was concerned with the perception of good form. Coined the phrase the whole is not equal to the sum of its parts.

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Existential and Humanistic

Existentialism is concerned with alienation and apathy in modern life. Humanism is concerned with helping people realize their full potential.

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Cognitive Psychology
Concerned with memory, thinking, language, learning, decision making Expanded the concept of behavior to include thoughts, feelings, and states of consciousness

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Evolutionary Psychology
Concerned with the evolutionary origins of behaviors and mental processes Their adaptive value and the purposes they continue to serve

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Positive Psychology
Focuses on positive experiences Looks for a positive relationship between positive emotions and physical health Identifies the factors that allow individuals, communities and societies to flourish.

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Multiple Perspectives Today

Contemporary psychologists tend to see different perspectives as complimentary. Most agree that the field advances with the addition of new evidence to support or challenge existing theories.

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Where Are The Women?

Women have contributed to psychology from its beginnings. Women presented papers and joined the national professional association as soon as it was formed in 1892.

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Where Are The Women?

Women faced discrimination. Some colleges and universities did not grant degrees to women. Professional journals were reluctant to publish their work. Teaching positions were often closed to them.

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Where Are The Women?

Today women receive more than half of the Ph.D.'s granted in psychology. They perform key research in all of the psychology subfields.

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Human Diversity
Today, understanding human diversity is essential. Psychologists have begun to examine assumptions based on gender, race, and culture.

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Gender Stereotypes
The study of gender similarities and differences has become part of mainstream psychology.

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Feminist Psychology
The most important research findings from the past were based on all-male samples. Gender difference studies tend to focus on the extremes of gender differences. Many issues that were not important to male researchers were not studied.

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Sexual Orientation
Origins of sexual orientation Brain differences between heterosexual and homosexual men Impact of gays and lesbians serving in the military

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Race and Ethnicity

Most ethnic minorities are still underrepresented among the ranks of psychologists. New APA programs are in place to attract ethnic-minority students to psychology. Psychologists have developed a better appreciation for the unique challenges faced by individuals from various ethnic backgrounds.
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Culture
Culture provides modes of thinking, acting, and communicating about how the world works and why people behave as they do Culture influences
Beliefs and ideals Interpretation of the meaning of natural events, human actions and life itself.

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Research Methods in Psychology

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Research Methods
Naturalistic Observation Case Studies Surveys Correlational Research Experimental Research

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Naturalistic Observation
Observing and recording the behavior of humans or animals in their natural environment

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Naturalistic Observation
Advantages
can observe what occurs before and after target behavior insight into the important factors to study no artificiality of the laboratory

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Naturalistic Observation
Disadvantages
less control over variables cannot imply causality observer bias and subject reactivity target behavior only occurs once

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Case Studies
Intensive description and analysis of a single individual or just a few individuals.

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Case Studies
Advantages
rich description of an individual each individual serves as own control no large groups of participants no random assignment

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Case Studies
Disadvantages
generalizability is decreased by small sample size the individual being studied may be an exception observer bias

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Surveys
A research technique in which questionnaires or interviews are administered to a selected group of people.

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Surveys
Advantages
large quantity of information relatively inexpensive

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Surveys
Disadvantages
respondents may not be representative response biases truthfulness of responses

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Correlational Research
A research technique based on the naturally occurring relationship between two or more variables.

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Correlational Research
Advantages
description and prediction possible

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Correlational Research
Disadvantages
no control over variables cannot imply causality

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Experimental Method
A research technique in which an investigator deliberately manipulates selected events or circumstances and then measures the effects of those manipulations on subsequent behavior.

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Experimental Research
Independent variable:
The variable that is manipulated by the experimenter to test its effects

Dependent variable:
The variable that is measured to see how it is changed by the independent variable

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Experimental Research
Experimental group:
The group subjected to a change in the independent variable

Control group:
The group not subjected to a change in the independent variable

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Experimental Research
Advantages
conclusions about causality can be made

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Experimental Research
Disadvantages
more ethical considerations behavior is constrained to laboratory

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Importance of Sampling
Sample:
Selection of cases from a larger population

Random sample:
Each potential participant has an equal chance of being selected

Representative sample:
The characteristics of the participants corresponds closely to the characteristics of the larger population
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Ethics and Psychology

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APA Ethical Guidelines For Human Subjects

Informed consent must be documented Awareness of possible risks Limitations on confidentiality specified Limitations on the use of deception Equitable alternatives must be offered if course credit is given for participation

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APA Ethical Guidelines For Animal Subjects

Researchers must ensure appropriate consideration of the animals comfort, health, and humane treatment. Animals may not be subjected to pain, stress, or privation when an alternative procedure is available.

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Careers in Psychology
Psychology is one of the most popular majors in colleges and universities. A background in it is useful in a wide number of fields because so many jobs involve a basic understanding of people.

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Careers in Psychology
Careers for those with advanced degrees in psychology include:
Teaching Research Jobs in government and private business A number of occupations in the mental health field

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Careers in Psychology
Opportunities in the mental health field depend on one's degree of training.
Psychiatrist which requires medical training; Clinical psychologist, which involves getting a doctoral degree; Counseling psychologist and social worker.

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