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Signal are represented mathematically as

functions of one or more independent
variables.

Digital signal processing deals with the
transformation of signal that are discrete in
both amplitude and time.

Discrete time signal are represented
mathematically as sequence of numbers.

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A discrete time system is defined
mathematically as a transformation or
operator.
y[n] = T{ x[n] }
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T{.}
x [n] y [n]
] [ ] [ ]} [ { ]} [ { ]} [ ] [ {
2 1 2 1 2 1
n y n y n x T n x T n x n x T + = + = +
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The class of linear systems is defined by the
principle of superposition.


And

Where a is the arbitrary constant.

The first property is called the additivity property
and the second is called the homogeneity or scaling
property.


] [ ]} [ { ]} [ { n ay n x aT n ax T = =
] [
1
n x
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These two property can be combined into the
principle of superposition,
]} [ { ]} [ { ]} [ ] [ {
2 1 2 1
n x bT n x aT n bx n ax T + = +
] [ ] [
2 1
n bx n ax +
] [
2
n x
H
H
Linear System
H
] [ ] [
2 1
n by n ay +
] [
1
n y
] [
2
n y
A Time-Invariant system is a system for witch
a time shift or delay of the input sequence
cause a corresponding shift in the output
sequence.
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] [
1
n x
H
H
] [
0 1
n n x
] [
1
n y
] [
0 1
n n y
A particular important class of systems consists
of those that are linear and time invariant.
LTI systems can be completely characterized by
their impulse response.


From principle of superposition:



Property of TI:
7
)
`

= k
k n k x T n y ] [ ] [ ] [ o
{ }

=
=
k
k n T k x n y ] [ ] [ ] [ o

=
=
k
k n h k x n y ] [ ] [ ] [

=
=
k
k n h k x n y ] [ ] [ ] [
8



Above equation commonly called convolution
sum and represented by the notation
] [ ] [ ] [ n h n x n y - =
Commutativity:

Associativity:

Distributivity:

Time reversal:
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] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ n x n h n h n x - = -
] [ ] [ ] [ n h n x n y - =
]) [ ] [ ( ] [ ] [ ]) [ ] [ (
3 2 1 3 2 1
n h n h n h n h n h n h - - = - -
]) [ ] [ ( ]) [ ] [ ( ]) [ ] [ ( ] [
2 1 2 1
n x n h b n x n h a n bx n ax n h - + - = + -
If two systems are cascaded,

The overall impulse response of the combined
system is the convolution of the individual IR:


The overall IR is independent of the order:
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H1 H2
H2 H1
] [ ] [ ] [
2 1
n h n h n h - =
Infinite-duration impulse-response (IIR).

Finite-duration impulse-response (FIR)


In this case the IR can be read from the right-
hand side of:
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] [ ... ] 1 [ ] [ ] [
1 0
q n x b n x b n x b n y
q
+ + + =
n
b n h = ] [
Transforms are a powerful tool for simplifying
the analysis of signals and of linear systems.
Interesting transforms for us:
Linearity applies:


Convolution is replaced by simpler operation:

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] [ ] [ ] [ y bT x aT by ax T + = +
] [ ] [ ] [ y T x T y x T = -
Most commonly transforms that used in
communications engineering are:
Laplace transforms (Continuous in Time & Frequency)

Continuous Fourier transforms (Continuous in Time)

Discrete Fourier transforms (Discrete in Time)

Z transforms (Discrete in Time & Frequency)


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Definition Equations:
Direct Z transform




The Region Of Convergence (ROC) plays an
essential role.
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=
n
n
z n x z X ] [ ) (
Elementary functions and their Z-
transforms:
Unit impulse:



Delayed unit impulse:




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] [ ] [ k n n x =o
0 : ] [ ) ( = = =

=

z ROC z z k n z X
n
k n
o
] [ ] [ n n x o =
0 : 1 ] [ ) ( = = =

z ROC z n z X
n
n
o
Unit Step:




Exponential:
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] [ ] [ n u a n x
n
=
| | :
1
1
) (
0
1
a z ROC
az
z a z X
n
n n
>

= =

>
=
otherwise 0,
0 n , 1
] [n u
1 :
1
1
) (
0
1
>

= =

z ROC
z
z z X
n
n
Important Z Transforms
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Region Of Convergence
(ROC)
Whole Page
Whole Page
Unit Circle
|z| > |a|
Elementary properties of the Z transforms:
Linearity:



Convolution: if

,Then
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{ } ) ( ) ( ] [ ] [ z bY z aX n by n ax + = + Z
] [ ] [ ] [ n y n x n w - =
) ( ) ( ) ( z Y z X z W =
Shifting:


Differences:
Forward differences of a function,


Backward differences of a function,

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{ } ) ( ] [ z X z k n x
k
= Z
] [ ] 1 [ ] [ n x n x n x + = A
] 1 [ ] [ ] [ = V n x n x n x
Since

the shifting theorem
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( ) ] [ ] 1 [ ] [ ] [ n n n x n x o o + - = A
{ } ) ( ) 1 ( ] [ z X z n x Z = A
{ } ) ( ) 1 ( ] [
1
z X z n x Z

= V
The ROC is a ring or disk in the z-plane
centered at the origin :i.e.,

The Fourier transform of x[n] converges at
absolutely if and only if the ROC of the z-
transform of x[n] includes the unit circle.

The ROC can not contain any poles.
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If x[n] is a finite-duration sequence, then the ROC
is the entire z-plane, except possibly or
.

If x[n] is a right-sided sequence, the ROC extends
outward from the outermost finite pole in
to .

The ROC must be a connected region.
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0 = z = z
) (z X = z
A two-sided sequence is an infinite-duration sequence
that is neither right sided nor left sided.

If x[n] is a two-sided sequence, the ROC will
consist of a ring in the z-plane, bounded on the
interior and exterior by a pole and not containing
any poles.

If x[n] is a left-sided sequence, the ROC extends in
ward from the innermost nonzero pole in to
.

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0 = z
) (z X
We have seen that
By the convolution property of the Z transform


Where H(z) is the transfer function of system.
Stability
A system is stable if a bounded input produced a
bounded output, and a LTI system
is stable if:
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] [ ] [ ] [ n h n x n y - =
) ( ) ( ) ( z H z X z Y =
M n x < | ] [ |
<

k
k h | ] [ |
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Fourier Transform
Fourier Series
Discrete Time Continuous FFT
Discrete Time Discrete FFT
Time
Frequency
Transform Type
Continuous
Discrete
Continuous
Continuous
Continuous Discrete
Discrete Discrete
Definition Equations:
Direct Z transform


It is customary to use the
Then the direct form is:

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=
1
0
2
] [ ] [
N
n
N
kn j
e n x k X
t
N
j
N
e W
t 2
=

=
1
0
] [ ] [
N
n
nk
N
W n x k X
With the same notation the inverse DFT is

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=
=
1
0
] [
1
] [
N
k
nk
W k X
N
n x
Elementary functions and their DFT:
Unit impulse:



Shifted unit impulse:




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] [ ] [ p n n x =o
kp
W k X

= ] [
] [ ] [ n n x o =
1 ] [ = k X
Constant:



Complex exponential:




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n j
e n x
o
= ] [
|
.
|

\
|
=
t
o
o
2
] [
N
k N k X
1 ] [ = n x
] [ ] [ k N k X o =
Cosine function:




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n f n x
0
2 cos ] [ t =
( ) ] [ ] [
2
] [
0 0
Nf k N Nf k
N
k X + + = o o
Elementary properties of the DFT:
Symmetry: If

,Then

Linearity: if
and

,Then
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] [ ] [ k F n f
] [ ] [ k X n x
] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ k bY k aX n by n ax + +
] [ ] [ n NF k f
] [ ] [ k Y n y
Shifting: because of the cyclic nature of DFT
domains, shifting becomes a rotation.
if

,Then
Time reversal:
if

,Then
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] [ ] [ k X n x
] [ ] [ k X n x
] [ ] [ k X W p n x
kp

] [ ] [ k X n x
Cyclic convolution: convolution is a shift, multiply
and add operation. Since all shifts in the DFT are
circular, convolution is defined with this circularity
included.

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=
= -
1
0
] [ ] [ ] [ ] [
N
p
p n y p x n y n x