Learning Theories

HUMAN BEHAVIOR

LISA J. MERLO, PH.D.

Objectives
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Understand theory of Classical Conditioning Applications to clinical practice

Understand theory of Operant Conditioning Applications to clinical practice Understand theory of Social Learning Applications to clinical practice

Classical Conditioning

Learning what events signal:

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Lightning thunder Sour-smelling milk bad taste Unexpected loud noise startle response Chopping onions tears

The scientific study of simple associations led to the development of classical conditioning theory

Ivan Pavlov
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Russian physiologist studying

the digestive system

Studied the role of saliva in

the digestive process

Developed method to

measure saliva production

Salivary Conditioning Apparatus

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Gave dog food and recorded salivation while it ate

Pavlovs Saliva Research

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Pavlovs Problem: experienced dogs salivated

before the food was presented

Pavlovs Theory: Some stimulus that preceded

the food presentation had acquired capacity to elicit the response of salivation

Dogs were exhibiting a simple type of learning

This type of learning is the foundation for

Classical Conditioning

Pavlovs Experiments
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Pavlov conducted experiments to test his new theory

of learning
Studied the effect of different stimuli on the behavior

of interest (AKA, response)

Animals automatically demonstrated the response after exposure to some stimuli Animals did not demonstrate the response after exposure to other stimuli Animals could be taught to demonstrate the response to some stimuli by pairing them with others

Paradigm of Classical Conditioning

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1st: Select a stimulus that automatically elicits a

characteristic response

Stimulus =Unconditioned stimulus (US) Response = Unconditioned response (UR)

Unconditioned means the stimulus-response connection is innate

2nd: Select a Stimulus for Conditioning (CS) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Can be any reasonable stimulus that does not initially evoke the UR

Conditioned means the stimulus-response connection occurs only AFTER the conditioning procedure takes place

Classical Conditioning & Pavlovs Dogs

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Key Definitions
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Unconditioned Stimulus (US) - stimulus which

naturally triggers a response [food]

Unconditioned Response (UR) - unlearned, natural

response to the US [salivating]

Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - previously neutral

stimulus, which eventually triggers a response [bell]

Conditioned Response (CR) - learned response to a

previously neutral stimulus [salivating]

Cognitive Factors Are Ignored

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Factors Affecting Classical Conditioning

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The CS should be presented BEFORE the US The US should follow the CS closely in time
Short delay = best Trace (moderate delay) = more difficult to achieve CR Long delay = difficult to achieve CR Simultaneous = much weaker conditioning than short delay Backward (i.e., US then CS) = usually not effective

The CS should UNIQUELY predict the US It should provide new information suggesting that the US is about to occur

Higher Ordering Conditioning

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Second Order Conditioning: CR transferred from one

CS to another CS

Example

Food (US) paired with metronome ticking (CS) to establish firstorder conditioning

Food (US) Salivation (UR) Eventually, ticking (CS) Salivation (CR)

Ticking (CS) paired with black square (2nd CS) to establish secondorder conditioning

Black Square Ticking (CS) Salivation (CR) Eventually, black Square (2nd CS) Salivation (CR) --- despite never being paired with food (US) Can also be done (less successfully) with 3rd order

conditioning

Key point: US does not always need to be present to establish association; Allows more flexibility in learning opportunities

Second-Order Classical Conditioning

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Little Albert & Stimulus Generalization

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Little Albert (11 months) was afraid of

nothing, except a loud sound made by striking a steel bar. This made him cry. By striking the bar at the same time that Albert touched a white rat, the fear transferred to the white rat (classical conditioning). After 7 combined stimulations (rat + sound), Albert remained greatly disturbed at the sight of a rat, but the fear also spread to include: a white rabbit, cotton, wool, a fur coat, a dog, a Santa Clause mask, and the experimenters hair. The fear did not transfer to his wooden blocks or other objects dissimilar to the rat.

Generalization and Discrimination

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Generalization: Transfer of the effects of

conditioning to similar stimuli

In general, the more similar a stimulus is to the training stimulus, the greater its capacity to elicit a conditioned response

Discrimination: Subject responds to a new

stimulus differently than he responds to an established conditioned stimulus

Extinction
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Conditioning is not necessarily permanent Extinction occurs when the CS is presented

repeatedly without the US (e.g., bell without food)

CS no longer signals the US, so conditioned

responding gradually diminishes

But CS-US association is not erased completely Spontaneous recovery Rapid Reacquisition

Spontaneous Recovery
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Spontaneous recovery = reappearance of an

extinguished response
Example: following one day of extinction trails (i.e.,

presenting CS without US until no CRs are present), the CR will be present again the following day
Time is a key factor The more time between 1st and 2nd extinction sessions, the more spontaneous recovery is observed

Extinction & Spontaneous Recovery

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Rapid Reacquisition
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Conditioning phase extinction phase re-

conditioning phase (i.e. reacquisition phase)

Rate of learning is faster the second time Continues to get faster with repeated cycles

Clinical Applications: Classical Conditioning

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Pair unconditioned stimulus with undesirable behavior

to change the response

E.g., treating nocturnal enuresis with Mower & Mowers Bell & Pad method
Bell (US) Wake-up and tighten muscles to prevent urination (UR) Bodily sensations before urinating (CS) alarm bell (US) Wake-up and tighten muscles to prevent urination (CR)

Use extinction to reduce unwanted response to

conditioned stimulus

E.g., decreasing fear response to object of phobia with extinction Repeatedly present the rat (CS) without the loud noise (US), until the CS no longer results in the CR

Operant Conditioning

Learning About the Consequences of Behavior

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Operant conditioning = a procedure for studying

how organisms learn about the consequences of their own voluntary behavior
Realization that our ACTIONS (rather than

conditioned stimuli) lead to outcomes results in operant conditioning

By operating on your environment, you can

produce a positive or negative consequence

Edward Lee Thorndike

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Studied animal intelligence and learning Placed a cat in the puzzle box. It was

encourage to escape to reach a scrap of fish Thorndike timed how long it took to escape. The cats experimented with different ways to escape the puzzle box and eventually would stumble upon the lever which opened the cage. When the cat had escaped, it was put back in the box and timed as it tried to escape. In successive trials, the cats would learn that pressing the lever would have favorable consequences, so they became increasingly quick at pressing the lever

Thorndikes Law of Effect

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If a response to a particular situation is followed by a

satisfying or pleasant consequence, it will be strengthened.

If a response to a particular situation is followed by

an unsatisfying or unpleasant consequence, it will be weakened.

B.F. Skinner
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Original research Rats in Skinner boxes Rats rewarded with food pellet for engaging in specific behaviors Basic assumption Voluntary responses are strengthened or weakened as a result of their consequences

Discriminative Stimulus: the

stimulus situation that sets the occasion for a response to be followed by reinforcement or punishment

Learning the Association

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Classical vs. Operant Conditioning

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The Nature of Reinforcement

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Reinforcement = consequences that INCREASE

the likelihood of the behavior occurring again

Positive reinforcement = a consequence that, when presented after a behavior, increases the likelihood of that behavior occurring again (e.g., getting an ice cream cone as a reward for earning an A on a test)
Negative reinforcement = a consequence that, when removed after a behavior, increases the likelihood of that behavior occurring again (e.g., getting out of chores as a reward for earning an A on a test)

The Nature of Punishment

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Punishment = consequences that DECREASE the

likelihood of a behavior occurring again

Positive Punishment: a consequence that, when presented after a behavior, decreases the likelihood of that behavior occurring again (e.g., getting a spanking after hitting your little sister)
Negative Punishment: a consequences that, when removed after a behavior, decreases the likelihood of that behavior occurring again (e.g., getting time out from the fun activity after hitting your little sister )

Schedules of Reinforcement
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Schedule of reinforcement = the rule used by the

experimenter to determine when particular responses will be enforced (in order to teach the organism that its behavior uniquely predicts the consequence)

Continuous reinforcement schedule = consequence delivered EVERY time behavior occurs

Partial Reinforcement schedule = consequence delivered only some of the time after the response has occurred

Partial Reinforcement Schedules

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Fixed ratio vs. Variable ratio: (deals with number

of responses before consequence presented)

Fixed Ratio = the number of responses required for delivery of the consequence does not change (is fixed) across trials Variable Ratio = the number of responses required for delivery of the consequence changes (varies) across trials

Fixed interval vs. Variable interval: (deals with

amount of time before consequence presented)

Fixed interval = consequence delivered for the first response that occurs following an unchanging (fixed) amount of time Variable interval = the allotted time before a response will yield a consequence changes (varies) across trials

Comparing Reinforcement Schedules

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Variable Ratio Schedule Hardest to Extinguish

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Effects on Behavior
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Continuous reinforcement fastest acquisition of

response (learning); fastest extinction of response (unlearning) Fixed ratio fast acquisition; fast extinction Variable ratio consistent acquisition; slowest extinction Fixed interval quickly learns to adapt behavior to timing; fast extinction Variable interval consistent acquisition; slower extinction

Operant Conditioning Concepts

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Extinction: When a previously reinforced behavior

decreases in frequency, and eventually ceases altogether, because reinforcement is withheld Spontaneous recovery: When an extinguished behavior reappears without having been reinforced Generalization: When an individual learns to make a particular response to a particular stimulus, and then makes the same response in a slightly different situation Discrimination: When an individual learns to notice the unique aspects of seemingly similar situations, and thus develops different ways of responding
** Names are the same as classical conditioning, but concepts are slightly different

Clinical Application: Operant Conditioning

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Implement continuous reinforcement schedule (in order to

facilitate acquisition of desired behavior), then switch to variable ratio schedule (in order to protect against extinction)
Parent Training teach parents how to use operant

principles to shape childrens behavior E.g., children with disruptive behavior disorders Praise/reward, Token economy, Time Out, Extinction, Punishment, Contingency management
Exposure / Response Prevention use negative

reinforcement to change patients behavior E.g., patients with OCD & other anxiety disorders

Social Learning

Learning From Others

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Social (Observational) Learning: Occurs when an

organisms responding (learning) is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models
Allows organisms to learn, without requiring their own trial

and error experiences

Modeling occurs when an organism imitates the behavior

of others

Albert Bandura
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Conducted the Bobo Doll Experiment to

study vicarious learning Showed nursery school children a film that portrayed a woman striking, punching, and kicking a large, inflatable Bobo doll When later placed in a room full of toys (including the Bobo doll), many children imitated the woman and violently attacked the doll This was more common when children viewed a film in which the woman was praised (e.g., Youre the champion) for attacking Bobo

The Model and the Imitators

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Factors Affecting Social Learning

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Models are more effective when they are: Attractive, honest, competent, and have elevated status More likely to imitate models who are successful and/or rewarded for their behavior Vicarious reinforcement and vicarious

punishment have effects on behavior that parallel Thorndikes Law of Effect

Clinical Applications: Social Learning

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Skills Training Modeling adaptive behavior as a parent, therapist, etc. E.g., teach shy children positive social skills Vicarious exposure to adaptive behaviors Show videos or models engaging in desired behavior E.g., show child with a dog phobia video of similar children playing with dogs and having fun Limiting exposure to maladaptive behaviors Prevent children from seeing others engaging in undesired behavior E.g., censoring TV shows, movies, video games

Questions?
45 LMERLO@UFL.EDU