A

collection of methods for planning studies and experiments, obtaining data, and then organizing, summarizing, presenting, analyzing, interpreting, and drawing conclusions based on the data

variable is a characteristic or condition that can change or take on different values. Most research begins with a general question about the relationship between two variables for a specific group of individuals.

 The

entire group of individuals is called the population. For example, a researcher may be interested in the relation between class size (variable 1) and academic performance (variable 2) for the population of third-grade children.

 Usually

populations are so large that a researcher cannot examine the entire group. Therefore, a sample is selected to represent the population in a research study. The goal is to use the results obtained from the sample to help answer questions about the population.

 Variables

can be classified as discrete or continuous. Discrete variables (such as class size) consist of indivisible categories, and continuous variables (such as time or weight) are infinitely divisible into whatever units a researcher may choose. For example, time can be measured to the nearest minute, second, half-second, etc.

To define the units for a continuous variable, a researcher must use real limits which are boundaries located exactly halfway between adjacent categories.

 To

establish relationships between variables, researchers must observe the variables and record their observations. This requires that the variables be measured. The process of measuring a variable requires a set of categories called a scale of measurement and a process that classifies each individual into one category.

1.

2.

A nominal scale is an unordered set of categories identified only by name. Nominal measurements only permit you to determine whether two individuals are the same or different. An ordinal scale is an ordered set of categories. Ordinal measurements tell you the direction of difference between two individuals.

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3. An interval scale is an ordered series of equalsized categories. Interval measurements identify the direction and magnitude of a difference. The zero point is located arbitrarily on an interval scale. 4. A ratio scale is an interval scale where a value of zero indicates none of the variable. Ratio measurements identify the direction and magnitude of differences and allow ratio comparisons of measurements.
11

14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Sales

Series 3 Series 2 Series 1

1st Qtr 2nd Qtr 3rd Qtr 4th Qtr

 observations

(such as measurements, genders, survey responses) that have been collected Raw data are collected data that have been organized numerically.

 Array

An array is an arrangement raw numerical data in ascending or descending order of magnitude. The difference between

Tally

marks

E.g.

1 3 3 1 5 3

5 0 3 1 0

3 4 2 0 3

3 1 1 3 4

2 4 2 6 2

 Stem

Plot

E.g. 44, 46, 47, 49, 63, 64, 66, 68, 68, 72, 72, 75, 76, 81, 84, 88, 106

 Frequency
Height " 60-62 63-65 66-68 69-71 72-74

Distribution
5 18 42 27 8

No. of Students

Cumulative

Frequency Class Intervals and Class Limits Class boundaries Size or width of a class interval Class mark(midpoint)

 Histogram
Frequency

Polygons Cumulative- Frequency distributions and Ogives

Final grades in mathematics of 80 students at the department of finance are given below.
68 73 61 66 96 79 65 86
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

84 79 65 78 78 62 80 67

75 88 75 82 89 67 73 73

82 73 87 75 61 97 57 81

68 60 74 94 75 78 88 72

90 93 62 77 95 85 78 63

62 71 95 69 60 76 62 76

88 59 78 74 79 65 76 75

76 85 63 68 83 71 53 85

93 75 72 60 71 75 74 77

The highest grade The lowest grade The range The grade of the five highest ranking students The grade of the five lowest ranking students The grade of the student ranking tenth highest The No. of students who received grades of 75 or higher The No. of students who received grades below 85 The % of students who received grades higher than 65 but not higher than 85 10. The grades that did not appear at all

In the following table the weights of 40 male students at the department of Finance are recorded to the nearest pound.

138 146 168 146 161

164 158 126 173 145

150 140 138 142 135

132 147 176 147 142

144 136 163 135 150

125 148 119 153 156

149 152 154 140 145

157 144 165 135 128

1. 2. 3. 4.

Construct the Frequency and CF Distribution Plot the data on a histogram Draw the Frequency polygon Draw the Ogive