Physiology of The CELL (I) for pre-medic Mesir (July 2013)

DR. NUR FARIESHA MD HASHIM MSc Radiation Biology (UCL), PhD Cancer Cell Biology (KCL)

PHYSIOLOGY UNIT, DEPT. OF BIOMEDICAL SCIENCE, FACULTY OF MEDICINE & HEALTH SCIENCES UPM

Overview of CELL PHYSIOLOGY at a glance

Cell Theory Observation of cells An overview of cell structure Endoplasmic Reticulum and Segregated Synthesis Golgi Complex and Exocytosis Lysosomes and Endocytosis Peroxisomes and Detoxification Mitochondria and ATP Production Centrosome, Centrioles and Microtubule Organization Cytosol: Cell Gel Cytoskeleton: Cell Bone and Muscle

Learning Outcomes Cell Physiology

At the end of the session, you will be able to : 1. Explain the parts of cells 2. Describe the functions of cell compartments

Principles of the Cell Theory

The cell is the smallest structural and functional unit capable of carrying out life processes

All new cells and new life arise only from preexisting cells

The functional activities of each cell depend on the specific structural properties of the cell

Because of this continuity of life, the cells of all organisms are fundamentally similar in structure and function

An organisms structure and function ultimately depend on the collective structural characteristics and functional capabilities of its cells

Cells are the living building blocks of all multicellular organisms

PART 1

An Overview of Cell Structure- under an EM

Cell Structure
Different cells share many common features. Most cells have 3 major subdivisions:

Plasma membrane

Encloses the cells Contains the cells genetic material The portion of the cells interior not occupied by the nucleus

Nucleus

Cytoplasm

The plasma membrane bounds the cell

Very thin structure composed of mostly lipid (fat)

Guard against unwanted traffic into or out of the cell

Plasma membrane

It keeps the intracellular fluid (ICF) within cells from mingling with the extracellular fluid (ECF) outside the cells

Like gated walls that enclosed ancient cities, the cell controls the entry of nutrients and other needed supplies and the export of products manufactured within

The nucleus contains the DNA

1-Typically the largest single organized cell component located near the center of the cell

2-Surrounded by nuclear envelope- separates the nucleus from the rest of the cell

Nucleus

3-Houses the cells genetic material, DNA

4-DNA has 2 major functions: directing protein synthesis and serves as genetic blueprint during cell replication

The cytoplasm consists of various organelles, the cytoskeleton and cytosol

Contains specialized organelles (cells little organs) and the cytoskeleton (a scaffolding of proteins , act as bone and muscle) dispersed within the cytosol Highly organized structures. 2 categories: membranous and nonmembranous organelles Membranous organelles- 5 main types- endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes, peroxisomes and mitochondria Non-membranous organelles- ribosomes, vaults and centrioles Is an interconnected system of protein fibers and tubes that extends throughout the cytosol Gives the cell its shape, provides for its internal organization, and regulates its various movements Semiliquid, gel-like mass. Many chemical reactions that are compatible with one another are conducted in the cytosol

Cytoplasm

Organelles

Cytoskeleton

Cytosol

PART 2

Endoplasmic Reticulum and Segregated Synthesis

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Fluid-filled membranous system distributed extensively throughout the cytosol Primarily a protein- and lipid-producing factory

Rough ER
Consists of stacks of relatively flattened interconnected sacs Synthesizes glycoproteins and phospholipids that are transferred into cellular organelles, inserted into the plasma membrane, or secreted during exocytosis

Smooth ER
Is a meshwork of tiny interconnected tubules Synthesizes fatty acids and steroids, such as estrogens and testosterone; inactivates or detoxifies drugs and other potentially harmful substances; removes the phosphate group from glucose-6-phosphate; and stores and releases calcium ions that trigger contraction in muscle cells

The outer surface of RER membrane is studded with small particles called ribosomes- the workbenches where protein synthesis takes place

The rough endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes proteins for secretion and membrane construction

The RER synthesizes and releases a variety of new proteins which serve one of 2 purposes : 1-some proteins are destined for export to the cells exterior as secretory products, like protein hormones or enzymes 2- other proteins are transported to sites within the cell for constructing new cellular membrane

The RER is most abundant in cells specialized for protein secretion (i.e. cells that secrete digestive enzymes) or in cells that require extensive membrane synthesis (i.e. rapidly growing cells like immature egg cells)

No ribosomes. SER is rather sparse and primarily serves as a central packaging and discharge site for molecules to be transported from the ER
The smooth endoplasmic reticulum packages new proteins in transport vesicles

Portions of the SER then bud off (balloon outward on the surface, then are pinched off), forming transport vesicles that enclose the new molecules in a spherical capsule derived from SER membrane Vesicle= fluid-filled, membrane enclosed intracellular cargo container

1-The RER synthesizes proteins to be secreted to the exterior or to be incorporated into cellular membrane

6-On appropriate stimulation, the secretory vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane, open, and empty their contents to the cells exterior. Secretion has occurred by exocytosis, with the secretory products never having come in contact with the cytosol

7-Lysosomes also bud from the Golgi complex

2-The SER packages the secretory product into transport vesicles, which bud off and move to the Golgi complex

5-Secretory vesicles containing the finished protein products bud off the Golgi complex and remain in the cytosol, storing the products until signaled to empty

3-The transport vesicles fuse with the Golgi complex , open up, and empty their contents into the closest Golgi sac

4-The newly synthesized proteins from the ER travel by vesicular transport through the layers of the Golgi complex, which modifies the raw proteins into final form and sorts and directs the finished products to their final destination by varying their wrappers

PART 3

Golgi Complex
Consists of a stack of slightly curved, membrane-enclosed sacs. The vesicles at the dilated edges of the sacs contain finished protein products packaged for distribution to their final destination

Processing and packaging of proteins by the Golgi complex. All proteins exported from the cell are processed in the Golgi complex

Exocytosis and endocytosis

(a) Exocytosis: A secretory vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane, releasing the vesicle contents to the cell exterior. The vesicle membrane becomes part of the plasma membrane

(b) Endocytosis: Materials from the cell exterior are enclosed in a segment of the plasma membrane that pockets inward and pinches off as an endocytic vesicle

PART 4

Lysosomes and endocytosis

Endocytosis can be accomplished in 3 ways- pinocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis and phagocytosis

1- Pseudopods begin to surround prey/solid particle

2- Pseudopods close around prey/ solid particle

4- Lysosome fuses with vesicle, releasing enzymes that attack material inside vesicle

3- Prey/solid particle is enclosed in endocytic vesicle that sinks into cytoplasm

Phagocytosis cell eating, large multimolecular particles are internalised

1- Solute molecules and water molecules are outside the plasma membrane

2- Membrane pockets inward, enclosing solute molecules and water molecules

3- Pocket pinches off as endocytic vesicle containing sample of ECF

Pinocytosis cell drinking, a drop of ECF is taken up non-selectively

1- Substances attach to membrane receptors

2- Membrane pockets inward

3- Pocket pinches off as endocytic vesicle containing target molecule

A highly selective process that enables cells to import specific large molecules that it needs from its environment

To be continued in CELL II

Physiology of The CELL (II) for pre-medic Mesir (July 2013)

DR. NUR FARIESHA MD HASHIM

PART 5

More about the Plasma Membrane and Membrane Transport Processes

The bilayer arrangement occurs because the lipids are amphipathic molecules = they have both polar and nonpolar parts

In phospholipids, the polar part is the phosphatecontaining head, which is hydrophilic water-loving

The non-polar parts are the 2 long fatty acid tails, which are hydrophobic water-fearing hydrocarbon chains

Because like seeks like, the phospholipid molecules orient themselves in the bilayer with their hydrophilic heads facing outward

In this way, the heads face a watery fluid on either side- cytosol on the inside and ECF on the outside

The hydrophobic fatty acid tails in each half of the bilayer point toward one another, forming a nonpolar, hydrophobic region in the membranes interior

Functions of Membrane Proteins

Transport across the plasma membrane

Transport across the plasma membrane

Passive processes

Simple diffusion

Facilitated diffusion

Facilitated diffusion

Principle of osmosis

Active Processes- Primary Active Transport

Active Processes- Secondary Active Transport

PART 6

Peroxisomes and detoxification

Peroxisomes or microbodies, contain several oxidases, enzymes that oxidizes (remove hydrogen atoms from) various organic substances Peroxisomes also contain plenty of catalase, an enzyme that decomposes potent H2O2 into harmless H2 and O2 This reaction is an important safety mechanism that destroys the potentially deadly peroxide , thus preventing its possible escape into cytosol

In other words, they produce and decompose hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in the process of degrading toxic molecules (peroxi = H2O2)

The major byproduct of oxidation is H2O2. Hydrogen peroxide is potentially destructive if allowed to accumulate or escape from peroxisomes

Peroxisomes are abundant in the liver, where detox of alcohol and other damaging substances occurs

Oxidative enzymes, use O2 to strip hydrogen

This helps detoxify various wastes produced within the cell or foreign toxic compounds that entered the cell, like alcohol in beverages

So basically, peroxisomes protect other parts of the cell from the toxic effects of H2O2

Mitochondria and ATP production

The electron transport proteins embedded in the cristae are responsible for converting the energy of food into a usable form

Mitochondria and ATP production

ATP is the universal energy carrier- the common energy currency of the body. Food =crude fuel, and ATP = refined fuel to operate the bodys machinery Cellular respiration refers collectively to the intracellular reactions where energy-rich molecules are broken down to form ATP, using O2 and producing CO2

Are referred to as the powerhouses of the cell, becoz they generate most of the ATP through aerobic respiration

Active cells, like those found in the muscles, liver and kidneys, use ATP at high rate have plenty mitochondria

Cells must extract energy from food nutrients and convert it into a usable formATP which consists of adenosine with 3 phosphate groups

Synthesis of some proteins needed for mitochondria functions occurs on the ribosomes present in the mitochondria matrix

In most cells, ATP is generated from the sequential dismantling of absorbed nutrient molecules in 3stages: glycolysis in the cytosol, citric acid cycle in the mitochondrial matrix and oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondrial inner membrane

The elaborate folds of the cristae provide an enormous surface area for the chemical reactions that are part of the aerobic phase of cell respirationthe reactions that produce most of a cells ATP

Like peroxisomes, mitochondria selfreplicate that occurs during times of increased cellular energy demand

Stages of cellular respiration. The 3

stages of cellular respiration are 1-glycolysis, 2-citric acid cycle and 3-oxidative phosphorylation

Centrosome, Centrioles and Microtubule Organization

Centrosome
Or cell center, located near the nucleus, consists of 2 components: a pair of centrioles and pericentriolar material

Centrioles
Are a pair of short cylindrical structures that lie at right angles to each other at the centrosome center. It is the cells main microtubule organizing center

Microtubules
Anchor many of the membranous organelles and serve as highways along which vesicles are transported within the cell by molecular motors

Centrosomes: Located near the nucleus, the centrosome consists of a pair of centrioles and pericentriolar material

Cilia and Flagella

A cilium contains a core of microtubules with one pair in the center surrounded by 9 clusters of doublet microtubules

Cytosol: Cell Gel

Occupying about 55% of total cell volume, its a semi -liquid portion of the cytoplasm that surrounds the organelles, 75-90% water + various dissolved and suspended components A highly organized, gel-like mass with differences in composition and consistency from 1 part of cell to another 3 general categories of activities are associated with the cytosol:

Enzymatic regulation of intermediary metabolism

Refers collectively to the large set of chemical reactions inside the cell that involve the degradation, synthesis and transformation of all small organic molecules such as glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, proteins, lipids, ATP, and waste products

Ribosomal protein synthesis

Also dispersed throughout the cytosol are the free ribosomes, which synthesize proteins for use in the cytosol itself In contrast, the RER ribosomes synthesize proteins for secretion and for construction new cell components

Storage of fat, carbohydrate and secretory vesicles

The largest and most important storage product is fat- lipid droplets that contain triglycerides Other visible storage product is glycogen, the storage form of glucose, which appears as clusters dispersed throughout the cell- glycogen granules Secretory vesicles that have been processed and packaged by the ER and GC also remain in the cytosol, where they are stored until signaled to empty their contents