Security and Ethics

Understanding Operating Systems

Objectives

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

You will be able to describe: The role of the operating system with regard to system security The effects of system security practices on overall system performance The levels of system security that can be implemented and the threats posed by evolving technologies The differences between computer viruses and worms, and how they spread The difficulties of teaching ethics to user groups and the role of education in system security

Role of the Operating System in Security

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Operating system plays a key role in computer system security

Any vulnerability at the operating system level opens the entire system to attack The more complex and powerful the operating system, the more likely it is to have vulnerabilities to attack

System administrators must be on guard to arm their operating systems with all available defenses against attack

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Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

System Survivability

Capability of a system to fulfill its mission, in a timely manner, in the presence of attacks, failures, or accidents Key properties of survivable systems:
Resistance to attacks Recognition of attacks and resulting damage Recovery of essential services after an attack Adaptation and evolution of system defense mechanisms to mitigate future attacks

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Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

System Survivability (continued)

Table 11.1: Four key properties of a survivable system

Levels of Protection

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

System administrator must evaluate the risk of intrusion for each computer configuration, which in turn depends on the level of connectivity given to the system

Table 11.2: A simplified comparison of security protection required for three typical computer configurations

Backup and Recovery

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Backup and recovery policies are essential for most computing systems Many system managers use a layered backup schedule Backups, with one set stored off-site, are crucial to disaster recovery Written policies and procedures and regular user training are essential elements of system management

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Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Backup and Recovery

Written security procedures should recommend:

Frequent password changes Reliable backup procedures Guidelines for loading new software Compliance with software licenses Network safeguards Guidelines for monitoring network activity Rules for terminal access

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Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Security Breaches

A gap in system security can be malicious or not Intrusions can be classified as:
Due to uneducated users and unauthorized access to system resources Purposeful disruption of the systems operation Purely accidental
Examples: Hardware malfunctions, undetected errors in OS or applications, or natural disasters

Malicious or not, a breach of security severely damages the systems credibility

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Unintentional Intrusions

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Any breach of security or modification of data that was not the result of a planned intrusion Examples:
Accidental incomplete modification of data
When nonsynchronized processes access data records and modify some but not all of a records fields

Errors due to incorrect storage of data values

e.g., When the field isnt large enough to hold the numeric value stored there

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Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Unintentional Intrusions (continued)

Figure 11.1: (a) Original data value in a field large enough to hold it. If the field is too small, (b) FORTRAN replaces the data with asterisks, (c) COBOL truncates the higher order digits and stores only the digits that remain

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Intentional Attacks

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Types of Intentional attacks:

Intentional unauthorized access
e.g., denial of service attacks, browsing, wire tapping, repeated trials, trap doors, and trash collection

Viruses and worms Trojan Horses Bombs Blended threats

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Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Intentional Unauthorized Access

Denial of service (DoS) attacks:
Synchronized attempts to deny service to authorized users by causing a computer to perform repeated unproductive task

Browsing:
Unauthorized users gain access to search through secondary storage directories or files for information they should not have the privilege to read

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Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Intentional Unauthorized Access (continued)

Wire Tapping: Unauthorized users monitor or modify a users transmission
Passive wire tapping: Refers to just listening to the transmission but not changing the contents, and reasons include:
To copy data while bypassing any authorization procedures To collect specific information such as password

Active wire tapping: Data being sent is modified

Methods include between lines transmission and piggyback entry

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Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Intentional Unauthorized Access (continued)

Repeated Trials: To enter systems by guessing authentic passwords Trap doors: An unspecified and undocumented entry point to the system
Installed by a system diagnostician or programmer for future use Leaves the system vulnerable to future intrusion

Trash collection: Use of discarded materials such as disks, CDs, printouts, etc., to enter the system illegally

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Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Intentional Unauthorized Access (continued)

Table 11.3: Average time required to guess passwords up to ten alphabetic characters (A-Z) using brute force

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Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Intentional Unauthorized Access (continued)

Malicious attacks on computers may violate state and federal law under the Federal Computer Fraud and Abuse Act of 1986 Those convicted have been sentenced to significant fines and jail terms, as well as confiscation of their computer equipment In the U.S., attempts to intrude into your system should be reported to the FBI

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Viruses

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Small programs written to alter the way a computer operates, without permission of the user Must meet two criteria: It must be self-executing and self-replicating Usually written to attack a certain operating system Spread via a wide variety of applications Macro virus works by attaching itself to a template (such as NORMAL.DOT), which in turn is attached to word processing documents

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Viruses (continued)

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Figure 11.2: A file infector virus attacks a clean file (a) by attaching a small program to it (b)

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Viruses (continued)

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Table 11.4: Types of viruses

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Viruses (continued)

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Table 11.4 (continued): Types of viruses

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Worms and Trojan Horses

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Worm: A memory-resident program that copies itself from one system to the next without requiring the aid of an infected program file
Results in slower processing time of real work Especially destructive on networks

Trojan Horse: A destructive program thats disguised as a legitimate or harmless program

Allows the programs creator to secretly access users system

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Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Bombs and Blended Threats

Logic bomb: A destructive program with a fuse a certain triggering event (such as a keystroke or connection with the Internet) Time bomb: A destructive program triggered by a specific time, such as a day of the year Blended Threat: Combines into one program the characteristics of other attacks
e.g., including a virus, worm, Trojan Horse, spyware, and other malicious code into a single program Spreads unnoticed throughout a network

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Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Blended Threats (continued)

Blended Threats: (continued) Characteristics of blended threat:
Harms the affected system Spreads to other systems using multiple methods Attacks other systems from multiple points Propagates without human intervention Exploits vulnerabilities of target systems

Protection: Combination of defenses in combination with regular patch management

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System Protection

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

No single guaranteed method of protection System vulnerabilities include:

File downloads, e-mail exchange Vulnerable firewalls Improperly configured Internet connections, etc.

Need for continuous attention to security issues System protection is multifaceted and protection methods include:
Use of antivirus software, firewalls, restrictive access and encryption

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Antivirus Software

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Software to combat viruses can be preventive, diagnostic, or both

Preventive programs may calculate a checksum for each production program Diagnostic software compares file sizes, looks for replicating instructions or unusual file activity

Can sometimes remove the infection and leave the remainder intact Unable to repair worms, Trojan horses, or blended threats as they are malicious code in entirety

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Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Antivirus Software (continued)

Table 11.5: Websites containing current information on systems security

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Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Antivirus Software (continued)

Figure 11.4: (a) Uninfected file; (b) file infected with a virus; (c) a Trojan horse or worm consists entirely of malicious code

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Firewalls

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

A set of hardware and/or software designed to protect a system by disguising its IP address from unauthorized users Sits between the Internet and network Blocks curious inquiries and potentially dangerous intrusions from outside the system Mechanisms used by the firewall to perform various tasks include:
Packet filtering Proxy servers

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Firewalls (continued)

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Figure 11.5: Firewall sitting between campus networks and Internet, filtering requests for access

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Firewalls (continued)

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Typical tasks of the firewall are to:

Log activities that access the internet Maintain access control based on senders or receivers IP addresses Maintain access control based on services that are requested Hide internal network from unauthorized users Verify that virus protection is installed and enforced Perform authentication based on the source of a request from the Internet

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Firewalls (continued)
Packet filtering:

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Proxy server:

Firewall reviews header information for incoming and outgoing Internet packets to verify authenticity of source address, destination address, and protocol

Hides important network information from outsiders by making network server invisible Determines if request for access to the network is valid Proxy servers are invisible to users but are critical to the success of the firewall

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Authentication

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Authentication: A verification that an individual trying to access a system is authorized to do so Kerberos: A network authentication protocol
Need for password encryption to improve network security led to development of Kerberos Designed to provide strong authentication for client/server applications Uses strong cryptography Requires systematic revocation of access rights from clients who no longer deserve to have access

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Authentication (continued)

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Figure 11.6: Using Kerberos, when client A attempts to access server B, user is authenticated (a) and receives a ticket for the session (b). Once the ticket is issued, client and server can communicate at will (c). Without the ticket, access is not granted

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Encryption

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Most extreme protection method for sensitive data where data is put into a secret code
To communicate with another system, data is encrypted, transmitted, decrypted, and processed Sender inserts public key with the message Message receiver required to have private key to decode the message

Disadvantages:
Increases systems overhead System becomes totally dependent on encryption process itself

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Sniffers and Spoofing

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Sniffers: Programs that reside on computers attached to the network

Peruse data packets as they pass by, examine each one for specific information e.g., Particularly problematic in wireless networks

Spoofing: Assailant fakes IP addresses of an Internet server by changing the address recorded in packets it sends over the Internet
Used when unauthorized users want to disguise themselves as friendly sites

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Password Management
Good passwords Careful user training

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Most basic techniques used to protect hardware and software investments include: Password Construction:
Good password is unusual, memorable, and changed often Password files normally stored in encrypted form Password length has a direct effect on the ability of password to survive password cracking attempts

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Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Password Construction (continued)

Figure 11.8: Password verification flowchart

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Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Password Construction (continued)

Table 11.6: Number of combinations of passwords depending on their length and available character set

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Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Password Construction (continued)

Reliable techniques for generating a good password:
Use minimum of eight characters, including numbers and nonalphanumeric characters Create a misspelled word or join bits of phrases into a word thats easy to remember Follow a certain pattern on the keyboard Create acronyms from memorable sentences Use upper and lowercase characters if allowed Never use a word thats included in any dictionary

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Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Password Construction (continued)

Dictionary attack: A method of breaking encrypted passwords
Requirements:
A copy of the encrypted password file Algorithm used to encrypt the passwords

Prevention:
Some operating systems salt user passwords with extra random bits to make them less vulnerable to dictionary attacks

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Password Alternatives
Use of a smart card

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

A credit card-sized calculator that requires both something you have and something you know Displays a constantly changing multidigit number synchronized with an identical number generator in the system User must type in the number that appears at that moment on the smart card For added protection, user then enters a secret code User is admitted to the system only if both number and code are validated

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Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Password Alternatives (continued)

Biometrics:
The science and technology of identifying individuals based on unique biological characteristics of each person Current research focuses on
Analysis of the human face, fingerprints, hand measurements, iris/retina, and voice prints

Positively identifies the person being scanned Critical factor is reducing the margin of error Presently, biometric authentication is expensive

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Social Engineering

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

A technique whereby system intruders gain access to information about a legitimate user to learn active passwords by
Looking in and around the users desk for a written reminder Trying the user logon ID as the password Searching logon scripts Telephoning friends and co-workers to learn the names of users family members, pets, vacation destinations, favorite hobbies, car model, etc.

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Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Social Engineering (continued)

Phishing: Intruder pretends to be a legitimate entity and contacts unwary users asking them to reconfirm their personal and/or financial information

Default passwords:

Example: 2003 incident involving eBay customers Pose unique vulnerabilities because they are widely known Routinely shipped with hardware or software Routinely passed from one hacker to the next Should be changed immediately

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Ethics

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Ethical behaviour: Be good. Do good.

Consequences of ethical lapses:

IEEE and ACM issued a standard of ethics in 1992 Apparent lack of ethics in computing is a significant departure from other professions

Illegally copied software can result in lawsuits and fines Plagiarism is illegal and punishable by law Eavesdropping on e-mail, data, or voice communications is sometimes illegal and usually unwarranted

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Ethics (continued)

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Consequences of ethical lapses: (continued)

Cracking (malicious hacking) causes systems owner and users to question the validity of systems data Unethical use of technology is clearly the wrong thing to do

Specific activities to teach ethics can include:

Publish policies that clearly state which actions will and will not be condoned Teach a regular seminar on the subject including real-life case histories Conduct open discussions of ethical questions

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Summary

Understanding Operating Systems, Fourth Edition

Cant overemphasize the importance of keeping the system secure System is only as good as the integrity of the data thats stored on it A single breach of security whether catastrophic or not, whether accidental or not damages the systems integrity Damaged integrity threatens the viability of the best-designed system, its managers, its designers, and its users Vigilant security precautions are essential