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ASSOCIATION
1
Bivariate Correlation vs.
Nonparametric Measures of
Association
Parametric correlation requires two
continuous variables measured on an
interval or ratio scale
The coefficient does not distinguish
between independent and dependent
variables
2
Bivariate Correlation Analysis
Pearson correlation coefficient
• r symbolized the coefficient's estimate of
linear association based on sampling data
• Correlation coefficients reveal the magnitude
and direction of relationships
• Coefficient’s sign (+ or -) signifies the
direction of the relationship
Assumptions of r
Linearity
3 Bivariate normal distribution
Bivariate Correlation Analysis
Scatterplots
• Provide a means for visual inspection of data
• the direction of a relationship
• the shape of a relationship
• the magnitude of a relationship
(with practice)
4
Interpretation of Coefficients
Relationship does not imply causation
Statistical significance does not imply a
relationship is practically meaningful
5
Interpretation of Coefficients
Suggests alternate explanations for
correlation results
• X causes Y. . . or
• Y causes X . . . or
• X & Y are activated by one or more other
variables . . . or
• X & Y influence each other reciprocally
6
Interpretation of Coefficients
Artifact
Correlations
Goodness of fit
• F test
• Coefficient of determination
• Correlation matrix
• used to display coefficients for more than
two variables
7
Bivariate Linear Regression
Used to make simple and multiple
predictions
Regression coefficients
• Slope
• Intercept
Error
term
Method of least squares
8
Interpreting Linear Regression
• Residuals
• what remains after the line is fit or (Y -Y )
i i
9
Interpreting Linear Regression
Goodness of fit
• Zero slope
• Y completely unrelated to X and no systematic
pattern is evident
• constant values of Y for every value of X
• data are related, but represented by a nonlinear
function
10
Nonparametric Measures of
Association
Measures for nominal data
• When there is no relationship at all, coefficient
is 0
• When there is complete dependency, the
coefficient displays unity or 1
11
Nonparametric Measures of
Association
Chi-square based measure
• Phi
• Cramer’s V
• Contingency coefficient of C
Proportional reduction in error (PRE)
• Lambda
• Tau
12
Characteristics of Ordinal Data
Concordant- subject who ranks higher on
one variable also ranks higher on the
other variable
Discordant- subject who ranks higher on
one variable ranks lower on the other
variable
13
Measures for Ordinal Data
No assumption of bivariate normal
distribution
Most based on concordant/discordant
pairs
Values range from +1.0 to -1.0
14
Measures for Ordinal Data
Tests
• Gamma
• Somer’s d
• Spearman’s rho
• Kendall’s tau b
• Kendall’s tau c
15