Introduction To RF For Particle Accelerators Part 1: Transmission Lines

f
Accelerator
Division
Introduction to RF for Particle Accelerators
Part 1: Transmission Lines
Dave McGinnis
f
Accelerator
Division
Introduction to RF - McGinnis
2
Transmission Line Topics
Phasors
Traveling Waves
Characteristic Impedance
Reflection Coefficient
Standing Waves
Impedance and Reflection
Incident and Reflected
Power

Smith Charts
Load Matching
Single Stub Tuners
dB and dBm
Z and S parameters
Lorentz Reciprocity
Network Analysis
Phase and Group Delay
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Terminology and Conventions
( ) ( ) | + e = t cos V t V
o
( )
( )
{ } { }
t j j
o
t j
o
e e V Re e V Re t V
e | | + e
= =
1 j =
Sinusoidal
Source
| j
o
e V
is a complex phasor
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Phasors
In these notes, all sources are sine waves
Circuits are described by complex phasors
The time varying answer is found by multiplying
phasors by and taking the real part
o
V
( ) | cos V
o
( ) | sin V
o
|
e
Re
Im
( ) ( ) | + | =
|
sin jV cos V e V
o o
j
o
t j
e
e
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TEM Transmission Line Theory
Charge on the inner conductor:
dV C q
l
=
where C
l
is the capacitance per unit length
Azimuthal magnetic flux:
dI L
l
= u
where L
l
is the inductance per unit length
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Electrical Model of a Transmission Line
i i i A +
v
v v A +
x L
l
A
x C
l
A
Voltage drop along the inductor:
( )
dt
di
x L v v v
l
A = A +
Current flowing through the capacitor:
dt
dv
x C i i i
l
A = A +
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Transmission Line Waves
Limit as Ax->0
t
i
L
x
v
l
c
c
=
c
c
t
B
E
c
c
= V

t
v
C
x
i
l
c
c
=
c
c
t
D
H
c
c
= V

Solutions are traveling waves
( )
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
vel
x
t v
vel
x
t v x , t v
( )
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
=
+
vel
x
t
Z
v
vel
x
t
Z
v
x , t i
o o
v
+
indicates a wave traveling in the +x direction
v
-
indicates a wave traveling in the -x direction
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Phase Velocity and Characteristic Impedance
vel is the phase velocity of the wave
l l
C L
1
vel =
For a transverse electromagnetic wave (TEM), the phase
velocity is only a property of the material the wave travels
through
c
=
1
C L
1
l l
The characteristic impedance Z
o
l
l
o
C
L
Z =
has units of Ohms and is a function of the material AND the
geometry

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Pulses on a Transmission Line
Pulse travels down the transmission line as a forward going wave
only (v
+
). However, when the pulse reaches the load resistor:
o o
L
Z
v
Z
v
v v
R
i
v
+
+
+
= =
L
R
+
v
so a reverse wave v
-
and i
-
must be created to satisfy the
boundary condition imposed by the load resistor
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The reverse wave can be thought of as the incident wave
reflected from the load
I =
+
=
+
o L
o L
Z R
Z R
v
v
Reflection coefficient
Three special cases:
R
L
= (open) I = +1

R
L
= 0 (short) I = -1

R
L
= Z
o
I = 0
A transmission line terminated with a resistor equal in value to
the characteristic impedance of the transmission line looks the
same to the source as an infinitely long transmission line
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Sinusoidal Waves
( ) { }
t j x j
e e V Re x t cos V v
e | + + +
= | e =
vel =
|
e
phase velocity
t
=
t
= |
2
vel
f 2
wave number
By using a single frequency sine wave we can now define complex
impedances such as:
LI j V e =
dt
di
L v =
dt
dv
C i =
C j
1
Z
cap
e
=
L j Z
ind
e =
CV j I e =
Experiment: Send a SINGLE frequency (e) sine wave into a
transmission line and measure how the line responds
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Standing Waves
L
Z
o
Z
0 x =
x
d
At x=0
o L
o L
Z Z
Z Z
V V
+
= I =
+
Along the transmission line:
( ) ( ) x cos V 2 e 1 V V
e V e V V
x j
x j x j
| I + I =
I + =
+ | +
| + + | +
traveling wave
standing wave
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Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Position
( )
( )
( )
( )
VSWR
1
1
1 V
1 V
V
V
min
max
=
I
I +
=
I
I +
=
+
+
The VSWR is always greater than 1
2
1
= I
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Reflection Coefficient Along a Transmission Line
L
Z
o
Z
0 x =
x
d
o L
o L
L
Z Z
Z Z
+
= I
G
I
towards load
towards generator
x j
L
x j
e V e V V
| + + | +
I + =
d 2 j
L
) d ( j
) d ( j
L
gen
reverse
forward
G
e
e V
e V
V
V
|
| +
| + +
I = I = = I
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G
I
L
I
{ } I Re
{ } I Im
d 2| = u
There is a one-to-one
correspondence between I
G

and Z
L
o G
o G
G
Z Z
Z Z
+
= I
G
G
o G
1
1
Z Z
I
I +
=
d 2 j
L
d 2 j
L
o G
e 1
e 1
Z Z
|
|
I
I +
=
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Impedance and Reflection: Open Circuits
For an open circuit Z
L
= so I
L
= +1
Impedance at the generator:
( ) d tan
jZ
Z
o
G
|
=
For |d<<1
d C j
1
d
jZ
Z
l
o
G
e
=
|
~
looks capacitive
For |d = t/2 or d=/4
0 Z
G
=
An open circuit at the load looks like a short circuit at the
generator if the generator is a quarter wavelength away from
the load
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Impedance and Reflection: Short Circuits
For a short circuit Z
L
= 0 so I
L
= -1
Impedance at the generator:
( ) d tan jZ Z
o G
| =
For |d<<1
d L j d jZ Z
l o G
e = | ~
looks inductive
For |d = t/2 or d=/4

G
Z
A short circuit at the load looks like an open circuit at the
generator if the generator is a quarter wavelength away from
the load
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Incident and Reflected Power
L
Z
o
Z
0 x =
x
d
s
P
d x =
d j
o
L
d j
o
G
d j
L
d j
G
e
Z
V
e
Z
V
) d ( I I
e V e V ) d ( V V
|
+
| +
+
| + | + +
I = =
I + = =
Voltage and Current at the generator (x=-d)
The rate of energy flowing through the plane at x=-d
{ }
o
2
2
L
o
2
*
G G
Z
V
2
1
Z
V
2
1
P
I V Re
2
1
P
+ +
I =
=
forward power
reflected power
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Incident and Reflected Power
Power does not flow! Energy flows.
The forward and reflected traveling waves are power
orthogonal
Cross terms cancel
The net rate of energy transfer is equal to the
difference in power of the individual waves
To maximize the power transferred to the load we
want:
0
L
= I
which implies:
o L
Z Z =
When Z
L
= Z
o
, the load is matched to the transmission line
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Load Matching
What if the load cannot be made equal to Z
o
for some other
reasons? Then, we need to build a matching network so that the
source effectively sees a match load.
0 = I
L
Z
s
P
0
Z
M
Typically we only want to use lossless devices such as
capacitors, inductors, transmission lines, in our matching
network so that we do not dissipate any power in the network
and deliver all the available power to the load.
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Normalized Impedance
jx r
Z
Z
z
o
+ = =
It will be easier if we normalize the load impedance to the
characteristic impedance of the transmission line attached to
the load.
I
I +
=
1
1
z
Since the impedance is a complex number, the reflection
coefficient will be a complex number
jv u + = I
( )
2 2
2 2
v u 1
v u 1
r
+

=
( )
2 2
v u 1
v 2
x
+
=
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Smith Charts
The impedance as a function of reflection coefficient can be
re-written in the form:
( )
2 2
2 2
v u 1
v u 1
r
+

=
( )
2 2
v u 1
v 2
x
+
=
( )
2
2
2
r 1
1
v
r 1
r
u
+
= +
|
.
|
\
|
+
( )
2
2
2
x
1
x
1
v 1 u =
|
.
|
\
|
+
These are equations for
circles on the (u,v) plane
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Smith Chart Real Circles
1 0.5 0 0.5 1
1
0.5
0.5
1
{ } I Re
{ } I Im
r=0
r=1/3
r=1
r=2.5
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Smith Chart Imaginary Circles
1 0.5 0 0.5 1
1
0.5
0.5
1
{ } I Re
{ } I Im
x=1/3 x=1 x=2.5
x=-1/3 x=-1 x=-2.5
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Smith Chart
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Smith Chart Example 1
Given:
O = 50 Z
o
Z = I 45 5 . 0
L
What is Z
L
?
( )
O + O =
+ O =
5 . 67 j 5 . 67
35 . 1 j 35 . 1 50 Z
L
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Given:
O = 50 Z
o
O O = 25 j 15 Z
L
What is I
L
?
5 . 0 j 3 . 0
50
25 j 15
z
L
=
O
O O
=
Z = I 124 618 . 0
L
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Given:
O = 50 Z
o
O + O = 50 j 50 Z
L
What is Z
in
at 50 MHz?
0 . 1 j 0 . 1
50
50 j 50
z
L
+ =
O
O + O
=
Z = I 64 445 . 0
L
nS 78 . 6 = t
? Z
in
=
et |
I = I = I
2 j
L
d 2 j
L in
e e
= et 244 2
Z = I 180 445 . 0
in
( ) O = + O = 19 0 . 0 j 38 . 0 50 Z
L
= et 244 2
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Admittance
A matching network is going to be a combination of elements
connected in series AND parallel.
Impedance is NOT well suited when working
with parallel configurations.
2 1 L
Z Z Z + =
2
Z
1
Z
2
Z
1
Z
2 1
2 1
L
Z Z
Z Z
Z
+
=
ZI V =
For parallel loads it is better to work with
admittance.
YV I =
2
Y
1
Y
2 1 L
Y Y Y + =
1
1
Z
1
Y =
Impedance is well suited when working
with series configurations. For example:
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Normalized Admittance
jb g YZ
Y
Y
y
o
o
+ = = =
I +
I
=
1
1
y
( )
2 2
2 2
v u 1
v u 1
g
+ +

=
( )
2 2
v u 1
v 2
b
+ +

=
( )
2
2
2
g 1
1
v
g 1
g
u
+
= +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
( )
2
2
2
b
1
b
1
v 1 u =
|
.
|
\
|
+ + +
These are equations for
circles on the (u,v) plane
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1 0.5 0 0.5 1
1
0.5
0.5
1
1 0.5 0 0.5 1
1
0.5
0.5
1
Admittance Smith Chart
{ } I Re
{ } I Im
g=1/3
b=-1
b=-1/3
g=1 g=2.5 g=0
b=2.5
b=1/3
b=1
b=-2.5
{ } I Im
{ } I Re
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Impedance and Admittance Smith Charts
For a matching network that contains elements
connected in series and parallel, we will need two
types of Smith charts
impedance Smith chart
admittance Smith Chart
The admittance Smith chart is the impedance
Smith chart rotated 180 degrees.
We could use one Smith chart and flip the reflection
coefficient vector 180 degrees when switching between a
series configuration to a parallel configuration.
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Procedure:
Plot 1+j1 on chart
vector =
Flip vector 180 degrees
Admittance Smith Chart Example 1
Given:
Z64 445 . 0
What is I?
1 j 1 y + =
Z = I 116 445 . 0
Plot y
Flip 180
degrees
Read I
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Procedure:
Plot I
Flip vector by 180
degrees
Read coordinate
Admittance Smith Chart Example 2
Given:
What is Y?
+ Z = I 45 5 . 0
O = 50 Z
o
Plot I
Flip 180
degrees
Read y
36 . 0 j 38 . 0 y =
( )
( ) mhos 10 x 2 . 7 j 6 . 7 Y
36 . 0 j 38 . 0
50
1
Y
3
=
O
=
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Matching Example
0 = I
O 100
s
P
O = 50 Z
0 M
Match 100O load to a 50O system at 100MHz
A 100O resistor in parallel would do the trick but of
the power would be dissipated in the matching network.
We want to use only lossless elements such as inductors
and capacitors so we dont dissipate any power in the
matching network
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Matching Example
We need to go from
z=2+j0 to z=1+j0 on
the Smith chart
We wont get any
closer by adding
series impedance so
we will need to add
something in parallel.
We need to flip over
to the admittance
chart
Impedance
Chart
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Matching Example
y=0.5+j0
Before we add the
admittance, add a
mirror of the r=1
circle as a guide.
Admittance
Chart
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Matching Example
y=0.5+j0
Before we add the
admittance, add a
mirror of the r=1
circle as a guide
Now add positive
imaginary
admittance.
Admittance
Chart
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Matching Example
y=0.5+j0
Before we add the
admittance, add a
mirror of the r=1
circle as a guide
Now add positive
imaginary
admittance jb = j0.5
Admittance
Chart
( )
pF 16 C
C MHz 100 2 j
50
5 . 0 j
5 . 0 j jb
=
t =
O
=
pF 16
O 100
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Matching Example
We will now add
series impedance
Flip to the
impedance Smith
Chart
We land at on the
r=1 circle at x=-1
Impedance
Chart
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Matching Example
Add positive
imaginary
admittance to get to
z=1+j0
Impedance
Chart
pF 16
O 100
( ) ( )
nH 80 L
L MHz 100 2 j 50 0 . 1 j
0 . 1 j jx
=
t = O
=
nH 80
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Matching Example
This solution would
have also worked
Impedance
Chart
pF 32
O 100
nH 160
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50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Frequency (MHz)
R
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
n

C
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

(
d
B
)
Matching Bandwidth
1
1
v
i
Im gamma
i
( )
1 1 u
i
Re gamma
i
( ) ,
50 MHz
100 MHz
Because the inductor and capacitor
impedances change with frequency, the
match works over a narrow frequency
range
pF 16
O 100
nH 80
Impedance
Chart
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dB and dBm
A dB is defined as a POWER ratio. For example:
( ) I =
|
.
|
\
|
I =
|
|
.
|
\
|
= I
log 20
log 10
P
P
log 10
2
for
rev
dB
A dBm is defined as log unit of power referenced to 1mW:
|
.
|
\
|
=
mW 1
P
log 10 P
dBm
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Single Stub Tuner
Match 100O load to a 50O system at 100MHz
using two transmission lines connected in
parallel
0 = I
100O
t
1
t
2
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Single Stub Tuner
Adding length to
Cable 1 rotates the
reflection
coefficient
clockwise.
Enough cable is
added so that the
reflection
coefficient reaches
the mirror image
circle
nS 49 . 3
MHz 100 360 2 251
1
1
= t
t =
Impedance
Chart
= u 251
1
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Single Stub Tuner
The stub is going to
be added in parallel
so flip to the
admittance chart.
The stub has to add
a normalized
admittance of 0.7
to bring the
trajectory to the
center of the Smith
Chart
Admittance
Chart
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Single Stub Tuner
Admittance
Chart
An open stub of
zero length has an
admittance=j0.0
By adding enough
cable to the open
stub, the
admittance of the
stub will increase.
70 degrees will give
the open stub an
admittance of j0.7
= u 70
2
nS 97 . 0
MHz 100 360 2 70
2
2
= t
t =
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Single Stub Tuner
Admittance
Chart
0 = I
100O
3.5nS

0.97nS

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Single Stub Tuner
Admittance
Chart
0 = I
100O
1.5nS

1.4nS

This solution would
have worked as well.
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50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Frequency (MHz)
R
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
n

C
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

(
d
B
)
0 = I
100O
3.5nS

0.97nS

Single Stub Tuner Matching Bandwidth
50 MHz
100 MHz
Because the cable phase changes linearly
with frequency, the match works over a
narrow frequency range
Impedance
Chart
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Two Port Z Parameters
We have only discussed reflection so far. What about
transmission? Consider a device that has two ports:
1
V
2
V
2
I
1
I
| | | || | I Z V
I Z I Z V
I Z I Z V
2 22 1 21 2
2 12 1 11 1
=
+ =
+ =
The device can be characterized by a 2x2 matrix:
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Scattering (S) Parameters
+
+
=
+ =
i i i o
i i i
V V I Z
V V V
Since the voltage and current at each port (i) can be broken
down into forward and reverse waves:
We can characterize the circuit with forward and reverse
waves:
| | | || |
+
+ +
+ +
=
+ =
+ =
V S V
V S V S V
V S V S V
2 22 1 21 2
2 12 1 11 1
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Z and S Parameters
| | | | | | ( ) | | | | ( )
| | | | | | ( ) | | | | ( )
1
o
o
1
o
S 1 S 1 Z Z
1 Z Z 1 Z Z S
+ =
+ =
Similar to the reflection coefficient, there is a one-to-one
correspondence between the impedance matrix and the
scattering matrix:
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Normalized Scattering (S) Parameters
The S matrix defined previously is called the un-normalized
scattering matrix. For convenience, define normalized waves:
i
o
i
i
i
o
i
i
Z 2
V
b
Z 2
V
a
+
=
=
Where Z
oi
is the characteristic impedance of the transmission
line connecting port (i)
|a
i
|
2
is the forward power into port (i)
|b
i
|
2
is the reverse power from port (i)
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Normalized Scattering (S) Parameters
The normalized scattering matrix is:
Where:
| | | || | a s b
a s a s b
a s a s b
2 22 1 21 2
2 12 1 11 1
=
+ =
+ =
j , i
i
o
j
o
j , i
S
Z
Z
s =
If the characteristic impedance on both ports is the same then
the normalized and un-normalized S parameters are the same.
Normalized S parameters are the most commonly used.
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Normalized S Parameters
The s parameters can be drawn pictorially
s
11
and s
22
can be thought of as reflection coefficients
s
21
and s
12
can be thought of as transmission coefficients
s parameters are complex numbers where the angle
corresponds to a phase shift between the forward and reverse
waves
s
11
s
22
s
21
s
12
a
1
a
2
b
1
b
2
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Examples of S parameters
t

Z
o
1

2

| |
(
(
=
et
et
0 e
e 0
s
j
j
2

1

| |
(
=
1 0
0 1
s
1

2

| |
(
=
0 G
0 0
s
G

Transmission Line
Short
Amplifier
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59
Examples of S parameters
| |
(
(
(
=
0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
s
1

2

| |
(
=
0 1
0 0
s
Z
o
Isolator
1

2

3

Circulator
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Lorentz Reciprocity
If the device is made out of linear isotropic materials
(resistors, capacitors, inductors, metal, etc..) then:
| | | | s s
T
=
j , i i , j
s s =
j i =
or
for
This is equivalent to saying that the transmitting pattern of an
antenna is the same as the receiving pattern
reciprocal devices: transmission line
short
directional coupler
non-reciprocal devices: amplifier
isolator
circulator
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Lossless Devices
The s matrix of a lossless device is unitary:
| | | | | | 1 s s
T
*
=
=
=
j
2
j , i
i
2
j , i
s 1
s 1
for all j
for all i
Lossless devices: transmission line
short
circulator
Non-lossless devices: amplifier
isolator
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Network Analyzers
Network analyzers measure S
parameters as a function of
frequency
At a single frequency, network
analyzers send out forward
waves a
1
and a
2
and measure the
phase and amplitude of the
reflected waves b
1
and b
2
with
respect to the forward waves.
a
1
a
2
b
1
b
2
0
2
a
1
1
11
a
b
s
=
=
0
2
a
1
2
21
a
b
s
=
=
0
1
a
2
1
12
a
b
s
=
=
0
1
a
2
2
22
a
b
s
=
=
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Network Analyzer Calibration
To measure the pure S parameters of a device, we need to
eliminate the effects of cables, connectors, etc. attaching the
device to the network analyzer
s
11
s
22
s
21
s
12
x
11
x
22
x
21
x
12
y
11
y
22
y
21
y
12
yx
21
yx
12
Connector Y Connector X
We want to know the S parameters at
these reference planes
We measure the S parameters at these
reference planes
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There are 10 unknowns in the connectors
We need 10 independent measurements to
eliminate these unknowns
Develop calibration standards
Place the standards in place of the Device Under Test
(DUT) and measure the S- parameters of the standards
and the connectors
Because the S parameters of the calibration standards
are known (theoretically), the S parameters of the
connectors can be determined and can be mathematically
eliminated once the DUT is placed back in the measuring
fixtures.
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Since we measure four S parameters for each
calibration standard, we need at least three
independent standards.
One possible set is:

| |
(
=
1 0
0 1
s
| |
(
(
=
et
et
0 e
e 0
s
j
j
t

| |
(
=
0 1
1 0
s
Thru
Short
Delay*
*et~90degrees
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Phase Delay
A pure sine wave can be written as:
( ) z t j
o
e V V
| e
=
The phase shift due to a length of cable is:
ph
ph
d
v
d
et =
e
=
| = u
The phase delay of a device is defined as:
( )
e
= t
21
ph
S arg
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Phase Delay
For a non-dispersive cable, the phase delay is the
same for all frequencies.
In general, the phase delay will be a function of
frequency.
It is possible for the phase velocity to take on any
value - even greater than the velocity of light
Waveguides
Waves hitting the shore at an angle
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Group Delay
A pure sine wave has no information content
There is nothing changing in a pure sine wave
Information is equivalent to something changing
To send information there must be some
modulation of the sine wave at the source
( ) ( ) ( ) t cos t cos m 1 V V
o
e e A + =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) | | t cos t cos
2
m
V t cos V V
o o
e A e + e A + e + e =
The modulation can be de-composed into different frequency
components
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Group Delay
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) z t cos
2
m
V
z t cos
2
m
V
z t cos V V
o
o
o
| A | e A e +
| A + | e A + e +
| e =
The waves emanating from the source will look like
Which can be re-written as:
( ) ( ) ( ) z t cos z t cos m 1 V V
o
| e | A e A + =
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Group Delay
The information travels at a velocity
e c
| c
e A
| A
=
1 1
v
gr
The group delay is defined as:
( ) ( )
e c
c
=
e c
| c
=
= t
21
gr
gr
S arg
d
v
d
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Phase Delay and Group Delay
Phase Delay:
( )
e
= t
21
ph
S arg
Group Delay:
( ) ( )
e c
c
= t
21
gr
S arg
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Accelerator
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Transmission Line Topics
Phasors
Traveling Waves
Characteristic Impedance
Standing Waves
Incident and Reflected
Power

Smith Charts
Load Matching
Single Stub Tuners
dB and dBm
Z and S parameters
Lorentz Reciprocity
Network Analysis
Phase and Group Delay

Introduction To RF For Particle Accelerators Part 1: Transmission Lines

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