WRITING THE INRODUCTION & LITERATURE REVIEW

Olufunmilayo I. Fawole
MSc (Epid and Biostat) (Wits), FWACP, FMCPH.

Dept. Epidemiology and Medical Statistics, UCH, Ibadan.

fawoleo@ymail.com

Learning objectives
At the end of this session, you should be able to: Explain what should be included in the introduction to a research paper. Critically analyse and edit an introduction. Explain what should be included in the literature review to a research paper. Critically analyse and edit a literature review

PUBLICATIONS Patents Journal Articles

Original Research Systematic Review & Meta-analysis General Review/Editorials and Commentaries Clinical Case Reports/Short Communications/
to the Editor

Letters

Books and Chapters in Books Monographs, Essays & Technical Reports Thesis and Dissertations

Standard Structure of Scientific Publications

This is based on the IMRAD arrangement: Introduction - Why did you do the research? Materials (patients) and Methods - What did you use and how did you do it? Results and Analysis - What did you find? Discussion - What do these findings mean? For dissertations literature review is imperative

The Introduction
Should explain to the reader why you did the research investigation at all. Should show where there is a gap in current knowledge, and how the study you have done addresses this problem. Also points out where there are conflicting results that need to be resolved.

 Makes clear why this topic is worth studying or why you did the study these are the objectives of your study and how your study adds to the body of knowledge that is available. Research question must be very clear to readers of the article, and the question should be based upon existing knowledge, data, and reports using appropriate references

The Introduction
In summary Should state clearly (1) the context of the study, (2) the problem, (3) what is already known, (4) what remains to be confirmed and/or tested.

Chapter One: Introduction

In a dissertation, the essential parts of a good introduction are BACKGROUND PROBLEM STATEMENT JUSTIFICATION / RATIONALE OBJECTIVES RESEARCH QUESTION(S)(optional)

For publications in international journals It is not enough to just repeat a study that has been done elsewhere Unless there is a very good reason why the results of a study in Nigeria are not likely to give the same results of the same study in Tanzania. In such cases, you would need to make a very strong argument as to why these differences could be expected.

The first paragraph

The opening sentence sets the context for the remainder of the paper, so it should catch the attention of the reader The introductory paragraph should set the context in which the research you describe was carried out.

Opening sentence
Studies have shown that there are four main kinds of opening sentence. Historical, Minireview, Gloom & doom New & exciting. First two most common.

Historical
The historical opening is one of the most common, and tells the reader the current situation in relation to past events. Because of its low cost, ease of use, safety and efficacy, chloroquine has been the mainstay of treatment for malaria in Africa for many decades.

Mini review
All of the major characteristics of a particular disease are summarised Schistosomiasis is a water snail-transmitted helminthic infection of the intestinal or urinary tract that is prevalent in many areas of the tropics and is responsible for considerable morbidity especially in children.

Gloom and Doom

This is a sentence in which the size of the problem is stated. Food borne infections are estimated to cause 76 million illnesses, 300,000 hospitalizations and 5,000 deaths annually in the US.

The new and interesting

This is a sentence in which the emergence and spread of new pathogens may be described Since the mid-1980s, concern has grown that invasive group A streptococcal infections have been increasing in number and severity.

Objectives
Broad ((statement of what is ultimately to be achieved) Specific S -pecific M- easurable A-chievable R-ealistic T-imely

Objectives
To assess ---------To determine To identify To explore To evaluate To document To predict To measure To estimate

Practical hints:
Use past tense except when referring to established facts. After all, the paper will be submitted after all of the work is completed. 2-4 paragraphs Organize your ideas, making one major point with each paragraph.

Statement of aims should be put as last section of Introduction research objectives; provide signal
Examples: Therefore, the objective of this study was

 Refer to recent papers that show that a problem exists. It is not very useful to give details of the historical context of a disease. In general, with the pace of scientific progress, a paper that is more than 10 years old is no longer worth citing as a reference! Every statement of fact should have a reference to support it.

The use of review articles as sources of actual data not encouraged - rather go to the source of the information that is given in the review article

INTRODUCTION: Key points

1.. KISS keep it short and simple (2-4 paragraphs)

2. The introduction must follow a logical progression from the background, to the current state of knowledge, to information that is not known and research question, to how your study design will answer that question.
3.. The flow should also be from a global perspective, narrowing down to the specific study being reported 4. Get advice from colleagues about whether your description is clear.

LITREATURE REVIEW

Source: Research toolbox guide: http://www.researchtoolbox.com/Manual/6.htm

STEPS IN CONDUCTING A LITREATURE REVIEW

Discard irrelevant/ inappropriate references

Identify key words/ concepts to be searched

Identify potential references through electronic or manual searches

Retrieving promising references

Screen references for relevance and appropriate ness

Read relevant references and take notes

Organize references

Analyze/ integrate materials

Write review

Identify new references through citations

ELECTRONIC LITERATURE SEARCHES

MEDLINE: Medical Literature On-Line CINAHL: Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature PsycINFO: Psychology Information On-Line AIDSLINE: AIDS Information On-Line CancerLit: Cancer Literature HealthSTAR: Health Services, Technology, Administration, and Research CHID: Combined Health Information Database

Reasons for conducting a literature review

Prevents duplication Helps discover what others have learned and reported on a specific problem Clarify how they studied the problem Helps you refine the problem Become familiar with research approaches/ theories used to explain similar problems Helps to formulate a convincing argument for conducting research on a problem. Justify your choice of research question, theoretical or conceptual framework, and methodology

 What has been done in my field of research What principles of selection should I be using What precise contribution is offered by other studies in the field? How (if at all) do previous studies relate to each other? What are the limitations identified by previous studies How does my research fit into what has been done? (Craswell, 2005. Writing for academic success

'Literature' can include a range of sources:

journal articles monographs computerized databases conferences proceedings Theses and dissertations empirical studies government reports and reports from other bodies historical records Statistical handbooks. Books Presentations at conferences Journal articles

How do I write a Literature Review

A written review should provide readers with an objective, well organized synthesis of the current state of evidence on a topic. In essence it helps to critically evaluate the overall evidence on the topic and provide a summary using writers own words should not just be a series of quotes or series of abstracts. Should identify strengths and weaknesses described in the literature. The review may be presented in a form of themes or common trends (historical, theoretical, methodological, substantive, etc) . The themes should build upon each other.

Ordering citations
All approaches to ordering citations should move toward the specific focus the study:
distant to close (geographical) chronological (time) different categories of approach a combination of the above

Plagiarism
is considered to be one of the worst academic sins! Academic dishonesty or Academic fraud

Plagiarism
Plagiarism involves taking ideas or words from other writers without acknowledging them. May be intentional or accidental. Writers must be very confident that all sources in the write up are acknowledged; hence the Declaration Statement in a Thesis.

Hence it is important to use a method of note taking which allows easy distingiustion of personal work from that of others.

How to avoid plagiarism?

Give credit whenever you use: Idea, opinion or theory from somebody else Facts, statistics, graphs, or any information not common knowledge Quotation of another persons spoken or written words

Prevent it by
Paraphrasing the other persons spoken or written words.

"...if you did not write it yourself, you must give credit."

The I vs. We debate

Traditionally in most academic writing, it is not accepted to write: "I think..." or "It is my opinion...", because this detracts from the supposed objectivity of scholarship. It is true that too much insertion of yourself in your writing swings the focus away from the material you are investigating and on to you. However, under the influence of a number of modern philosophers and other theorists, this may even be desirable in some disciplines. It is a debate that is still ongoing within the academia

Reporting words
Reporting verbs or expressions are used to report on what other authors have done. This include whether they have - made claims, stated that, opined, argued a case, established findings, drawn conclusions, etc. Your choice of word will reveal to your reader your attitude toward the status of the author's theories/research; it will also indicate whether or not you consider her/his claims to be substantiated

Possible e-help
Endnote & Refworks (referencing) Turnitin.com (plagiarism) www.mendeley.org (PDF sharing & organisation

What are the examiners looking for?

A review of the literature should: set up a theoretical framework for your research; show your reader that you: have a clear understanding of the key concepts/ideas/studies/ models related to your topic; know about the history of your research area and any related controversies; can discuss these ideas in a context appropriate for your own investigation; can evaluate the work of others; clarify important definitions/terminology; develop the research space you will also indicate in the Introduction and Abstract; narrow the problem, and make the study feasible

Poor writing results when you

1. Dont know the subject well 2. Dont know your audience 3. Dont use the tools of writing 4. Dont spend the time it requires 5. Write to impress instead of express ideas 6. Are not honest 7. Dont try hard enough
Lesson 2: Writing effectively

HAPPY WRITING

THANK YOU

Reflection Activity
Look at your literature review: Does it provide a good background to explain the need for the project? Can I account for the studies that I included in my review? What plan (pattern/themes) was followed when I presented the topic and the subsequent issues What gaps did I identify? How did I make the gaps explicit How do I plan to address the identified shortcomings

Reflecting on your literature review

How good was my information seeking?
Has my search been wide enough to ensure I've found all the relevant material? Was it focused enough to exclude irrelevant material? Is the number of sources I've used appropriate for the length of my paper/project? Did I critically analyze the literature used? Do I follow through a set of concepts and questions, comparing items to each other in the ways they deal with them? Instead of just listing and summarizing items, do I assess them, discussing strengths and weaknesses?