The

use of IRON dates back to about 1500 B.C. They only used to heat the ore in a charcoal fire. They were able to produce SMALL scale of Ferrous metal.

BLAST

FURNACE was developed in the 18th century and the early part of 19th century. STEEL production started in mid-1800 when the BESSEMER CONVERTER was invented. 2nd half of 19th century, they develop BASIC OXYGEN FURNACE and continuous casting methods.

Structural

Steels (Plates, Bars, Pipes, Structural shapes, etc). Fastening Products (Bolts, Structural connections, Nuts and washers). Miscellaneous (Forms, Pans, etc)

Reducing

IRON ORE to Pig Iron Refining Pig Iron to STEEL Forming the steel into products

IRON ORE

COKE

LIMESTONE

Blast Furnace

Slag

Pig Iron

Pig Iron Casting

Open Hearth

Basic Oxygen Molten Steel

Electric Arc

Continuous Casting

Ingots

Soaking Pits

Primary rolling

Structural shapes

Rails

Bars

Wires

Pipes

Plates

Sheets

In refining steel from iron ore, the quantity of carbon used must be carefully controlled in order for the steel to have the desired properties. The reason for the strong relationship between steel properties and carbon content can be understood by examining the IRONCARBON Phase Diagram.

In an iron-rich material, each carbon atoms bonds with three iron atoms bonds with three iron atoms to form iron carbide. Fe3C is also called cementite. When Iron-carbide reach 6.7% carbon by weight, 100% of ironcarbide is reached. Then Carbon goes into solution with a ferrite at temperatures between 400C to 912C. As temperature rises, there are transformation of Austenite to Pearlite.

The significance of Ferrite, pearlite and iron carbide formation is that the properties of the steel are highly dependent on the relative proportions of ferrite and iron carbide. Ferrite has relatively low strength but is very ductile. Iron carbide has high strength but has virtually no ductility. Combining these, alters the mechanical properties of the steel.

 Strength
Toughness Ductility Weldability Durability

 Yield

strength is the most common property that the designer will need as it is the basis used for most of the rules given in design codes . In European Standards for structural carbon steels (including weathering steel ), the primary designation relates to the yield strength, e.g. S275 steel is a structural steel with a specified minimum yield strength of 275 N/mm.

 It

is in the nature of all materials to contain some imperfections. In steel these imperfections take the form of very small cracks. If the steel is insufficiently tough, the 'crack' can propagate rapidly, without plastic deformation and result in a 'brittle fracture'. The risk of brittle fracture increases with thickness, tensile stress, stress raisers and at colder temperatures. The toughness of steel and its ability to resist brittle fracture are dependent on a number of factors that should be considered at the specification stage. A convenient measure of toughness is the Charpy V-notch impact test.

 Ductility

is a measure of the degree to which a material can strain or elongate between the onset of yield and eventual fracture under tensile loading The designer relies on ductility for a number of aspects of design, including redistribution of stress at the ultimate limit state, bolt group design, reduced risk of fatigue crack propagation and in the fabrication processes of welding, bending and straightening.

 All

structural steels are essentially weldable. However, welding involves locally melting the steel, which subsequently cools. The cooling can be quite fast because the surrounding material, e.g. the beam, offers a large 'heat sink' and the weld (and the heat introduced) is usually relatively small. This can lead to hardening of the 'heat affected zone' (HAZ) and to reduced toughness. The greater the thickness of material, the greater the reduction of toughness.

further important property is that of corrosion prevention. Although special corrosion resistant steels are available these are not normally used in building construction. The exception to this is weathering steel .

 Tension

Test Torsion Test Charpy V Notch Impact Test Bend Test Hardness Test Ultrasonic Test

 is

a fundamental materials science test in which a sample is subjected to a controlled tension until failure. The results from the test are commonly used to select a material for an application, for quality control, and to predict how a material will react under other types of forces.

Properties that are directly measured via a tensile test are ultimate tensile strength, maximum elongation and reduction in area. From these measurements the following properties can also be determined: Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio, yield strength, and strain-hardening characteristics.

 The

test process involves placing the test specimen in the testing machine and applying tension to it until it fractures. During the application of tension, the elongation of the gauge section is recorded against the applied force. The data is manipulated so that it is not specific to the geometry of the test sample.

The most common testing machine used in tensile testing is the universal testing machine. This type of machine has two crossheads; one is adjusted for the length of the specimen and the other is driven to apply tension to the test specimen. There are two types: hydraulic powered and electromagnetically powered machines.

A torsion test can be conducted on most materials to determine the torsional properties of the material. These properties include but are not limited to: Modulus of elasticity in shear Yield shear strength Ultimate shear strength Modulus of rupture in shear Ductility

Torsion Only: Applying only torsional loads to the test specimen. Axial-Torsion: Applying both axial (tension or compression) and torsional forces to the test specimen. Failure Testing: Twisting the product, component, or specimen until failure. Failure can be classified as either a physical break or a kink/defect in the specimen. Proof Testing: Applying a torsional load and holding this torque load for a fixed amount of time. Operational Testing: Testing complete assemblies or products such as bottle caps, switches, dial pens, or steering columns to verify that the product performs as expected under torsion loads.

 When

the twisting moment is applied, the torque is reacted by a torque shaft, which moves in relation to the deflection arm. The movement of the deflection arm is measured by a linear potentiometer, which is connected to a calibrated TQ digital torque meter to give a readout of the torque in a unit of N.m or lb.in. The more we turn the input hand wheel clockwise to increase the degree of rotation, the more torque is produced. At the initial stage, the graphical relationship of the torque and degree of rotation measured is linear.

 is

a standardized high strain-rate test which determines the amount of energy absorbed by a material during fracture. This absorbed energy is a measure of a given material's notch toughness and acts as a tool to study temperature-dependent ductile-brittle transition. It is widely applied in industry, since it is easy to prepare and conduct and results can be obtained quickly and cheaply.

The test is performed using several machined bar specimens 1cm x 1cm x 5.5cm with a 2mm deep notch at the middle of a specified flat surface usually a V notch. The specimens are tested at a series of specified temperatures (e.g. -20C, -10C, 0C, +10C, +20C). Once a specimen reaches the precise temperature, it is quickly placed into a special holder with the notch oriented vertically and toward the origin of impact. The specimen is struck by a tup attached to a swinging pendulum of specific design and weight. The specimen breaks at its notched cross-section upon impact, and the upward swing of the pendulum is used to determine the amount of energy absorbed (notch toughness) in the process.

The apparatus consists of a pendulum of known mass and length that is dropped from a known height to impact a notched specimen of material. The energy transferred to the material can be inferred by comparing the difference in the height of the hammer before and after the fracture (energy absorbed by the fracture event).

 Bend

testing determines the ductility or the strength of a material by bending the material over a given radius. Following the bend, the sample is inspected for cracks on the outer surface. Bend testing provides insight into the modulus of elasticity and the bending strength or a material.

 Once

the test strip is prepared, you can set up your bending jig. A small hydraulic press or fly press is adequate for this purpose. The top punch should have a radius of approximately twice that of the material thickness being tested. The die needs to have sufficient clearance to allow the top punch to pass through it, plus twice the material thickness. For example, for testing a 5mm thick sample, you would use a punch with a radius of 10mm (diameter of 20mm). Then the bottom needs an opening of 30mm. Align the test strip in the tool, with the weld centralised between the bottom die, then apply pressure to bend it to 90degrees, further if you so wish.

 The

most common uses for hardness tests is to verify the heat treatment of a part and to determine if a material has the properties necessary for its intended use. Establishing a correlation between the hardness result and the desired material property allows this, making hardness tests very useful in industrial application.

 Hardness

Scales There are five major hardness scales: Brinell HB Rockwell HR Vickers - HV Knoop - HK Shore - HS

The indenter is pressed into the sample by an accurately controlled test force. The force is maintained for a specific dwell time, normally 10 - 15 seconds. After the dwell time is complete, the indenter is removed leaving a round indent in the sample. The size of the indent is determined optically by measuring two diagonals of the round indent using either a portable microscope or one that is integrated with the load application device. The Brinell hardness number is a function of the test force divided by the curved surface area of the indent. The indentation is considered to be spherical with a radius equal to half the diameter of the ball. The average of the two diagonals is used in the following formula to calculate the Brinell hardness. The Brinell number, which normally ranges from HB 50 to HB 750 for metals, will increase as the sample gets harder. Tables are available to make the calculation simple. A typical Brinell hardness is specified as follows: 356HBW Where 356 is the calculated hardness and the W indicates that a carbide ball was used. Note- Previous standards allowed a steel ball and had an S designation. Steel balls are no longer allowed.

Rockwell hardness values are expressed as a combination of a hardness number and a scale symbol representing the indenter and the minor and major loads. The hardness number is expressed by the symbol HR and the scale designation. There are 30 different scales. The majority of applications are covered by the Rockwell C and B scales for testing steel, brass, and other metals. However, the increasing use of materials other than steel and brass as well as thin materials necessitates a basic knowledge of the factors that must be considered in choosing the correct scale to ensure an accurate Rockwell test. The choice is not only between the regular hardness test and superficial hardness test, with three different major loads for each, but also between the diamond indenter and the 1/16, 1/8, 1/4 and 1/2 in. diameter steel ball indenters.

 Similar

to the Brinell method, the Vickers hardness value HV is determined by the ratio between the applied test load and the surface of the indentation.The test loads most often used are: 9.81, 19.62, 49.05, 98.10, 294.30 N. It is also possible to use test loads below 9.81 N, which means entering the domain of micro hardness and applications in metallographical laboratories.

 This

procedure is similar to Vickers, with a pyramid-shaped diamond penetrator and a rhombical base area (diagonals at a ratio of 1 : 7.), and it is only used in laboratories with a few grammes as total test load.

 This

methods is based on the principle that a ball (or a shaft with ball point) is dropped on the specimen and rebounds more or less, dependingon the hardness of the material and the drop height. However, this method is used seldomly because the precision of the results is very much depending on the mass of the specimen and on the perfectly vertical falling axis. The hardness values are then given in Shore points and are only standardised for big, dressed to size cylinders (calenders).

 In

ultrasonic testing (UT), very short ultrasonic pulse-waves with center frequencies ranging from 0.1-15 MHz and occasionally up to 50 MHz are launched into materials to detect internal flaws or to characterize materials.

 In

ultrasonic testing, an ultrasound transducer connected to a diagnostic machine is passed over the object being inspected. The transducer is typically separated from the test object by a couplant (such as oil) or by water, as in immersion testing. However, when ultrasonic testing is conducted with an Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT) the use of couplant is not required.

There are two methods of receiving the ultrasound waveform: reflection and attenuation. In reflection (or pulse-echo) mode, the transducer performs both the sending and the receiving of the pulsed waves as the "sound" is reflected back to the device. Reflected ultrasound comes from an interface, such as the back wall of the object or from an imperfection within the object. The diagnostic machine displays these results in the form of a signal with an amplitude representing the intensity of the reflection and the distance, representing the arrival time of the reflection. In attenuation (or through-transmission) mode, a transmitter sends ultrasound through one surface, and a separate receiver detects the amount that has reached it on another surface after traveling through the medium. Imperfections or other conditions in the space between the transmitter and receiver reduce the amount of sound transmitted, thus revealing their presence. Using the couplant increases the efficiency of the process by reducing the losses in the ultrasonic wave energy due to separation between the surfaces.

 PROPERTIES

OF STEEL CAN BE ALTERED BY APPLYING A VARIETY OF HEAT TREATMENTS. THE BASIC PROCESS IS TO HEAT THE STEEL TO A SPECIFIC TEMPERATURES, HOLD THE TEMPERATURE FOR A SPECIFIED PERIOD OF TIME, THEN COOL THE MATERIAL AT SPECIFIED RATE.

ANNEALING

NORMALIZING
HARDENING

TAMPERING

 Alloy

metals can be used to alter the characteristics of steel. By some counts, there are 250,000 different alloys of steel produced and of these, as many 200 may be used for Civil Engineering applications. Alloy agents are added to improve the following properties: HARDENABILITY, CORROSION RESISTANCE, MACHINEABILITY, DUCTILITY.

Common Steel Alloying Agents

Typical ranges (%)

Principal Effects

ALUMINUM

SULFUR

CHROMIUM

-Aids nit riding -Removes oxygen in melting <0.5 -Adds machineability -Reduces weldability/ductility 0.3-0.4 -Increases resistance to corrosion and hardenability -High temperature strength

<2

Common Steel Alloying Agents

Typical ranges (%)

Principal Effects

NICKEL/ SILICON COPPER

0.35.0/ 0.2-0.5 0.2-0.5

MANGANESE

-Increases hardenability and toughness -Promotes tenacious oxide film to aid atmospheric corrosion resistance 0.3-0.4 -Increases hardenability -With sulfur, reduces adverse effects

By altering the carbon and alloy content and by using different heat treatments, steel can be produced with a wide variety of characteristics. These are classified as follows: LOW ALLOYS (Low-carbon, plain, high strength-low alloy, heat treatable,tool) HIGH ALLOYS (Tool, stainless)

By altering the carbon and alloy content and by using different heat treatments, steel can be produced with a wide variety of characteristics. These are classified as follows: LOW ALLOYS (Low-carbon, plain, high strength-low alloy, heat treatable,tool) HIGH ALLOYS (Tool, stainless)

Stainless steels has been used in some highly corrosive applications, such as Dowel bars in concrete pavements and steel components in swimming pools and drainage lines. The use and control of alloying agents is one of the most significant factors in the development of steel with better performance characteristics.

Structural steel is used in hot rolled structural shapes, plates and bars. Structural steel is used for various types of structural members, such as columns, beams, bracing, frames, trusses, bridge girders, and other structural applications.

 yield strength (ASTM) TYPE chemical composition and mechanical properties CLASS Unified Numbering System

GRADE

 WIDE

FLANGE (W, HP, and M shapes) I BEAM (S shapes) CHANNEL (C and MC shapes) EQUAL LEGS ANGLE (L shapes) UNEQUAL LEGS ANGLE (L shapes) TEE SHEET PILING and RAIL

The W, M, S, HP, C and MC shapes are designated by a letter followed by two numbers separated by an X. The letter indicates the shape, while the two numbers indicate the nominal depth and the weight per linear unit length. For example, W 44 X 335

W shapes are commonly used as beams and columns, HP shapes are used as bearing piles, and S shapes are used as beams or girders. Composite sections can also be formed by welding different shapes to use in various structural applications.

ELEMENTS

COMPOSITION BY WEIGHT (%)

ELEMENTS

COMPOSITION BY WEIGHT (%)

CARBON MANGANESE
PHOSPHORUS SULFUR SILICON COPPER

0.11 1.101.35 0.20

0.006

NICKEL CHROMIUM
MOLYBDENUM

0.25-0.4 0.45-0.7
0.020.08 0.040.08

VANADIUM

0.3-0.5 ALUMINUM 0.250.4 NITROGEN

0.010.04 0.015

Bolts Twist-off type tension control bolt assemblies Nuts Washers Compressible-washer-type direct tension indicators Anchor rods Threaded rods Forged steel structural hardware

Conventional

Since concrete has negligible tensile strength, structural concrete members subjected tensile and flexural stresses must be reinforced. Either conventional or pre-stressed reinforcing can be depending on the design.

 In

conventional reinforcing, the stresses fluctuate with loads on the structure. This does not place any special requirements on the steel.

 In

pre stressed reinforcement, the steel is under continuous tension. Any stress relaxation will reduce the effectiveness of the reinforcement. Hence, special steels are required.

BARS DEFORMED BARS PLAIN AND DEFORMED BARS

PLAIN

 Plain

bars are round, without surface deformation. It provide limited bond with the concrete and therefore, not typically used in sections subjected to tension and bending.

 Deformed

bars have protrusions at the surface thus, they ensure good bond between the bar and the concrete. They are used in concrete beams, slabs, columns, walls, footings, pavements, and other concrete structures.

 Welded

wire fabrics are used in some concrete slabs and pavements, mostly to resist temperature and shrinkage stresses.

Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials, usually metals or thermo plastics, by causing coalescence. This is often done by melting the work pieces and adding a filler material to form a pool of molten material (the weld pool) that cools to become a strong joint, with pressure sometimes used in conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce the weld. This is in contrast with soldering and brazing, which involve melting a lower-melting-point material between the work pieces to form a bond between them, without melting the work pieces.

 Shielded

metal arc welding (SMAW), also known as manual metal arc welding (MMA or MMAW), flux shielded arc welding[1] or informally as stick welding, is a manual arc welding process that uses a consumable electrode coated in flux to lay the weld. The process is used primarily to weld iron and steels (including stainless steel)but aluminium, nickel and copper alloy s can also be welded with this method.

 Gas

metal arc welding (GMAW), sometimes referred to by its subtypes metal inert gas (MIG) welding or metal active gas (MAG) welding, is a welding process in which an electric arc forms between a consumable wire electrode and the workpiece metal(s), which heats the workpiece metal(s), causing them to melt, and join. Along with the wire electrode, a shielding gas feeds through the welding gun, which shields the process from contaminants in the air.

 The

corrosion of structural steel is an electrochemical process that requires the simultaneous presence of moisture and oxygen. Essentially, the iron in the steel is oxidised to produce rust, which occupies approximately six times the volume of the original material. The rate at which the corrosion process progresses depends on a number of factors, but principally the 'microclimate' immediately surrounding the structure.

 Bimetallic

corrosion Pitting corrosion Crevice corrosion Galvanic corrosion Intergranular corrosion Stress corrosion cracking

When two dissimilar metals are joined together and in contact with an electrolyte, an electrical current passes between them and corrosion occurs on the anodic metal. Some metals (e.g. stainless steel) cause low alloy structural steel to corrode preferentially whereas other metals (e.g. zinc) corrode preferentially themselves, thereby protecting the low alloy structural steel. The tendency of dissimilar metals to bimetallic corrosion is partly dependent upon their respective positions in the galvanic series. The further apart the two metals in the series the greater the tendency.

 In

some circumstances the attack on the original anodic area is not stifled and continues deep into the metal, forming a corrosion pit. Pitting more often occurs with low alloy structural steels in continually wet conditions or buried in soil rather than those exposed in air. Hence, pitting corrosion is rarely encountered on typical modern steel buildings or bridges.

 Crevices

can be formed by design detailing, welding, surface debris, etc. Available oxygen in the crevice is quickly used by the corrosion process and, because of limited access, cannot be replaced. The entrance to the crevice becomes cathodic, since it can satisfy the oxygen-demanding cathode reaction. The tip of the crevice becomes a localised anode and high corrosion rates occur at this point.

 Galvanic

corrosion is an electrochemical process in which one metal corrodes preferentially to another when both metals are in electrical contact and immersed in an electrolyte. This same galvanic reaction is exploited in primary batteries to generate an electrical voltage.

 Intergranular

corrosion (IGC), also known as intergranular attack (IGA), is a form of corrosion where the boundaries of crystallites of the material are more susceptible This situation can happen in otherwise corrosion-resistant alloys, when the grain boundaries are depleted, known as grain boundary depletion, of the corrosioninhibiting elements such as chromium by some mechanism.to corrosion than their insides.

 Stress

corrosion cracking (SCC) is the growth of cracks in a corrosive environment. It can lead to unexpected sudden failure of normally ductile metals subjected to a tensile stress, especially at elevated temperature in the case of metals. SCC is highly chemically specific in that certain alloys are likely to undergo SCC only when exposed to a small number of chemical environments

 Galvanization
Cathodic

protection Coatings and painting Bluing Inhibitors Humidity control

 Galvanization

consists of an application on the object to be protected of a layer of metallic zinc by either hot-dip galvanizing or electroplating. Zinc is traditionally used because it is cheap, adheres well to steel, and provides cathodic protection to the steel surface in case of damage of the zinc layer. In more corrosive environments (such as salt water), cadmium plating is preferred.

Cathodic protection is a technique used to inhibit corrosion on buried or immersed structures by supplying an electrical charge that suppresses the electro-chemical reaction. If correctly applied, corrosion can be stopped completely. In its simplest form, it is achieved by attaching a sacrificial anode, thereby making the iron or steel the cathode in the cell formed. The sacrificial anode must be made from something with a more negative electrode potential than the iron or steel, commonly zinc, aluminium, or magnesium. The sacrificial anode will eventually corrode away, ceasing its protective action unless it is replaced in a timely manner. Cathodic protection can also be provided by using a specialpurpose electrical device to appropriately induce an electric charge

 Rust

formation can be controlled with coatings, such as paint, lacquer, or varnish that isolate the iron from the environment. Large structures with enclosed box sections, such as ships and modern automobiles, often have a wax-based product (technically a "slushing oil") injected into these sections. Such treatments usually also contain rust inhibitors. Covering steel with concrete can provide some protection to steel because of the alkaline pH environment at the steel-concrete interface.

 Bluing

is a technique that can provide limited resistance to rusting for small steel items, such as firearms; for it to be successful, a water-displacing oil is rubbed onto the blued steel.

 Corrosion

inhibitors, such as gas-phase or volatile inhibitors, can be used to prevent corrosion inside sealed systems. They are not effective when air circulation disperses them, and brings in fresh oxygen and moisture.

 Rust

can be avoided by controlling the moisture in the atmosphere. An example of this is the use of silica gel packets to control humidity in equipment shipped by sea.