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OVERVIEW
• SITUATIONAL AWARENESS
• ELEMENTS OF SITUATIONAL
AWARENESS
• HUMAN ERROR & THE ERROR
CHAIN
• DEGRADATION TO SITUATIONAL
AWARENESS
• THE DYNAMICS OF SITUATIONAL
AWARENESS
• WAYS TO MAINTAIN SITUATIONAL

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 Situational Awareness
• Knowledge of all pertinent aspects of
your surroundings as it applies to the
safe accomplishment of a task
• Elements of Situational Awareness
– Weather, Aircraft Condition and

Seeing the big picture

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 Situational Awareness
• Theory of the Situation - A set of beliefs
about what is happening and what action
the individual should take
– Based on the interpretation of available
information
– It is the human’s perception of reality
• Reality of the Situation - Actual reality,
without human perceptions
• Theory of Practice - A person’s concepts

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 Element of Situational
Awareness
EXPERIENCE PHYSICAL
AND FLYING
TRAINING SKILLS
SITUATIONAL
AWARENESS
HEALTH SPATIAL
AND ORIENTATION
ATTITUDE
COCKPIT
MANAGEMENT
SKILLS
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Having Situational Awareness

• True situational awareness is an

individual’s accurate perception of
reality

Indicators of HIGH SA
– Precision in…………..

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 Losing Situational
• Awareness
If a discrepancy exists between the
individual’s “Theory of the Situation” and
the “Reality of the Situation”, a loss of
situational awareness occurs and an error
chain could begin
Indicators Of LOST SA
- Radio/Comm Degradation..Ambiguity…
Violating Minimums
- Fixation/Preoccupation..Unresolved
Discrepancy…
- Confusion…Departure from SOPs…No one
flying the aircraft
- Use of undocumented procedure…No one
looking outside…
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Failure to meet target. #
Haz08 MHS Kerteh Trg Dept
 RISK FACTORS
Everything that we do is entail
RISK,
it is how we manage the risk in
which, is the key to our

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 Evaluating Risk in the Flight
Environment
• The Plane- Type, Equipment, Etc.
• The Pilot- COM, AIC - I’M SAFE
Model
– Illness, Medication, Stress, Alcohol,
Fatigue, Experience
• The Environment- IFR,VFR,
Mountains,
• The Situation- Day, Night, AC
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 High Risk Situations

• Taking Off with Known Problem

• Midair Collision- High Density Area
• Inadequate Terrain Separation- CFIT
• Unstabilized Approach
• Deviation From SOP
• Weather
• COMPLACENCY

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Haz08 MHS Kerteh Trg Dept
 The Error Chain
FOUR out of FIVE Pilot
Errors that caused an
ACCIDENT occur before 5. No one flying airplane
the flight left the 6. No one looking out the
ground…………NASA
1. Failure to meet targets window
2. Use of undocumented procedures 7. Communications
3. Departure from SOPs breakdown
4. Violating minimums or limitations

9. Ambiguity
10. Unresolved
discrepancies
11. “BAD FEELING”
AIRPORT Tend to occur sequentially
May or may not be related to each
other ACCIDENT
May not be readily apparent to the
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 Clues to Loss of Situational
Awareness
• Low Stress Level
– Lack of alertness
– Loss of recognition of warning signals
– Reduced ability to quickly & correctly
• High Stress Level
– Low levels of situational awareness
– Information overload
• Ambiguity
– Information can be interpreted in more
than one way

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 Clues to Loss of Situational
Awareness
• Fixation or Preoccupation
– Ability to detect other important
information lost
• Departures from SOPS/Regulations
– Violating minimums
– Using improper procedures
• Failure to Meet Planned Targets
– When planned targets are not met such
as airspeeds, checkpoints, times, etc
– Must question why

Haz08 MHS Kerteh Trg Dept #

Haz08 MHS Kerteh Trg Dept
 Maintaining Situational
• Experience Awareness
– Creates a mental file
– Experience file helps establish how one
interprets & responds to conditions
• Training
– Adds to pilots experience file
– Can experience situations in training
that occur rarely
• Spatial Orientation
– Position awareness

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 Maintaining Situational
• Awareness
Ability to Process Information
– use of information from sense inputs,
instruments, and other sources to form
an accurate picture of what is happening
• Cockpit Management Skills
– contribute to the ability to manage the
total flight environment
• Personal Attitude
– professionalism
– To be safe, one must think safe

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MHS Kerteh Training Dept
?
 CFIT

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Haz08 MHS Kerteh Trg Dept
 What is CFIT?
 

Controlled Flight into Terrain

(CFIT) occurs when an airworthy
aircraft under the control of a
qualified pilot is inadvertently
flown into terrain, water, or an
obstacle with inadequate
awareness on the part of the pilot
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The following actual incident and accident summaries illustrate some
typical CFIT accident scenarios:
 
At night in IMC, the pilot misread the NAV-DME due to fatigue. Read DME on
wrong NAV radio, descended too early on back course LOC approach and
penetrated prohibited airspace, after flying 7 hours and having been on duty
for 10 hours. A low- altitude alert issued by the Approach Controller prevented
an accident.
 
The pilot likely lost situational awareness and inadvertently flew the aircraft
into the ice surface while in controlled flight because of the combined effects
of the lack of external visual references and weak instrument flying skills.
 
The pilot continued flight in adverse weather conditions and probably did not
have the necessary visual references to avoid hitting the steep slope of the
mountain. Likely contributing to this accident was the pilot's over-reliance on
GPS while attempting to maintain visual meteorological conditions ( VMC).
 
During the overshoot from the approach to the airport, the pilot probably lost
situational awareness as a result of spatial disorientation, unintentionally
flying the aircraft into the ground.
 
The pilot encountered weather conditions that were worse than forecast, and,
in an attempt to maintain or regain visual contact with the ground in an area
of Haz08
low cloud and dense ground fog, descended
MHS Kerteh Trg Dept and the aircraft struck the
 2% 1%

24
39

34

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 4%
13
13
70

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• However……………………
by using HFACS (Human Factor analysis & Classification
System) on CFIT

– More fatal than non-fatal accidents were

associated with violations
– Decision errors were more often
associated with non-fatal CFIT accidents
– When weather was a factor, more CFIT
accidents were associated with
violations and decision errors.

WH
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 Confluence of Factors in a CFIT Accident
(Bradley, 1995)

Approach controller Training & Standardization

Weather conditions failed to update issues?
Non-precision altimeter setting
approach ≥ 250 foot
terrain clearance Rapid change in
Strong barometric
crosswind pressure
Autopilot would Tower PF used Altitude Hold
not hold window to capture MDA
broke PM used non-standard
Are most pilots Tower closed callouts to alert PF
aware of this? PF selected
Heading Altimeter update
Select Altitude Hold
not available may allow
Additional altitude
Airline’s use of workload sag 130 feet in
QFE altimetry ? turbulence
Increased
vulnerability
to error ?
Crew error (70 feet) 170 foot error in
in altimeter setting altimeter
reading

Aircraft struck
trees
Haz08 MHS 310 feetTrg
Kerteh below
Dept MDA
 Forget to Act (LOST SA) in Six Prototypical Situations
§ Interruptions
• e.g., Controller interrupted before turning aircraft onto final

§ Non-habitual tasks that must be deferred

• e.g., “Report passing through 10,000 feet”

§ Attention switching among multiple concurrent tasks

• e.g., First officer re-programming the FMC for approach

§ Habitual tasks with normal trigger cues removed

• e.g., “Go to tower at final approach fix”

§ Habitual tasks performed out of the normal sequence

• e.g., Lowering Ldg Gears delayed because of time factor

§ Habit capture (a typical action must be substituted for habitual

action)

#
• e.g., Modified standard instrument departure.
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Haz08 MHS Kerteh Trg Dept
 CFIT Countermeasures
 
Countermeasures for CFIT prevention can be grouped
in two main categories:

aircraft equipment and training/education

Findings from accident investigations have indicated
that many CFIT accidents could have been avoided if
some type of terrain warning system or an improved
navigation system had been installed on the aircraft
and/or if pilots were better informed of CFIT related
hazards and how to avoid them

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 Equipment
Advances in technology have resulted in cockpit equipment that can
significantly improve a pilot's situation awareness. Some of this
technology is now cost effective for general aviation applications.

- Ground Proximity Warning Systems (GPWS) have been mandatory

equipment on large transport aircraft for years and been instrumental in
preventing some CFIT accidents. Terrain Awareness and Warning Systems
(TAWS) have been developed with increased capabilities to replace
GPWS. In addition, less capable but cost effective TAWS have been
developed for the smaller aircraft market.

These systems compare the aircraft's present position, as determined

from the aircraft's navigation system, with an onboard terrain database.

If there is a potential threat of collision with terrain, TAWS provides an

aural and/or visual warning to the pilot, enabling corrective action to be
taken even in instrument flight or night conditions.

- Global Positioning Systems (GPS) are now used extensively

throughout commercial and general aviation operations. Used correctly,
these systems can provide increased navigation capability and accuracy,
instrument approaches in locations where no ground-based approach aids
are available and better situational awareness. All of these potential
benefits can help to reduce the CFIT accident rate, particularly in
circumstances involving flight in instrument conditions or visual flight in
reduced or marginal visibility, both situations are potential factors in CFIT
accidents.
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 Training
 
Specific training and education in the area of CFIT
awareness/avoidance is perhaps more important
than equipment improvements. In some countries
CFIT avoidance training is mandatory for most
commercial and business operations. Although the
emphasis for this training has been on these types
of operations, the statistics indicate that general
aviation accidents account for the highest
percentage of the overall CFIT accidents. Therefore,
general aviation pilots should familiarize themselves
with the flight circumstances typically associated
with CFIT accidents and the countermeasures

Haz08 MHS Kerteh Trg Dept

MHS Kerteh Training Dept
?
 REVIEW
• SITUATIONAL AWARENESS
• ELEMENTS OF SITUATIONAL
AWARENESS
• SITUATIONAL AWARENESS AND
SAFETY
• HUMAN ERROR & THE ERROR
CHAIN
• DEGRADATION TO SITUATIONAL
AWARENESS
• WAYS TO MAINTAIN SITUATIONAL

Haz08 MHS Kerteh Trg Dept

Tools to Reestablish Equilibrium (when SA is lost).

- Get away from dirt, rocks, trees, and metal (climb

/ breakaway)
- Stabilize the aircraft: --Roll out, Stabilize heading,
airspeed, and altitude.
- Buy time: -- Climb to safe altitude, put on
autopilot.
-- Delay the maneuver (refuel, formation, etc.)
--Enter holding
- Seek information (re-erect your gyros)

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 Thank you!
Congratulations, here is what you’ve just accomplished;

CRM Skill – Situational Awareness

To know more about new exciting subject ,
refer to the training programme given out to you.

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