Competitive Solutions For Tomorrow's Challenges: Prepared by

Competitive Solutions for Tomorrows Challenges
Prepared By:
Jesus Valdez
April 18,2011
I. Structure of matter
Matter Anything that occupies space and has mass. Atom - Basic unit of Matter.
Atoms are made of 3 smaller particles namely.

Protons(p +) - Positively charge particle. Neutrons(n) Neutrally charge particle. Electron(e -) Negatively charge particle. 3
Isotopes - Atoms of an element that have a different number of neutrons in the nucleus.
Notation a 238
X U
n 92
146
a mass number a=z+n z atomic number, number of protons. n number of neutron.
II. Radioactive decay
RADIOACTIVE DECAY
Spontaneous changes in the nucleus of an unstable atom which results in the formation of new elements.
IONIZING RADIATION
Any particle or ray which has sufficient energy to remove electrons from atom.
Unit of energy: eV (electron volt) 1 eV = 1.6 x 10^-19 joules
Alpha Particle
- Consist of 2p & 2n tightly bond together. - Helium nucleus - Usually emitted by heavy nuclei elements
Beta Particle - An electron which is ejected from the nucleus of the radionuclide at high speed.
Gamma Rays
- Emission radiation which come from the nucleus of an atom as a result of radioactive decay.
10
Positron +
- Is similar to an electron with the same mass but an opposite charge.
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X-rays
- Electromagnetic radiation with no mass and no charge.
12
Neutron n
- Particles found in the nucleus of the atom. - no charge
13
Alpha Emission
- Emission of a highly energetic helium nucleus from the nucleus of a radioactive atom.
226 222 Rn + 4 He Ra = 88 86 2
14
Beta Emission
- Emission of an electron from nucleus of a radioactive electron.
131
131 Xe + 0 e I = 53 54 -1
15
Gamma Emission
- Monoenergetic radiation emitted from nucleus of an excited atom following radioactive decay.
16
Positron Emission
- Occurs when neutron to proton ratio is too low.
15 15 N + + O = 8 7
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III. RADIOACTIVE DECAY
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Radioactive Decay Law

N = N0e-t
N = Number of nuclei remaining after the decay time. N0 = Original number of nuclei = Radioactive decay constant T = elapsed time
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Radioactive Decay
- The amount of activity A remaining after n half lives is given by
Where:
A Activity at time t. Ao initial activity. N number of half life which has elapsed.
A A= 2
0 n
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Half life
- The time taken for half the atom in the sample to decay.
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Activity
- The amount of radionuclide present. SI unit is the Bequerel(Bq) 1Bq = 1 disintegration per sec
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Sources of radiation
1. Terrestrial radiation comes from the rocks of the earth. 2. Background radiation are cosmic radiation from the outer space. 3. Radioactive materials from our food and drinks. 4. Radiation from artificial source fission, neutron activation, an ion bombardment.
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Fission
- The process which occurs in nuclear reactors & involves splitting a heavy nucleus into smaller nuclei.
neutron nucleus
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Fission fragment
Gamma
neutron Energy
Alpha
Beta
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IV. Units and Quantities in Radiation Protection
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Radiation Quantities
Fluence() no. of particles thru a unit area. Exposure(X) amount of ionization produced in air by photons. unit: R(Roentgen); 1R = 2.58x10-4C/kg of air
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Dosimetric Quantities
Absorb dose(D) a measure of radiation energy absorbed per unit mass of matter. unit: Gray(Gy) = J/kg Rad = Radiation absorbed dose 1Gy = 100Rad
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Equivalent dose a measure of the biological effects of a particular type of radiation on a particular organ or tissue. H = D x WR ,Radiation Weighing factor. Units: sievert(SV) 1SV = 100rem
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Effective dose a measure of the effect of a particular type of radiation on organs or tissues. ET = HT x WT W = Tissue Weighting Factor unit: Sieverts(Sv)
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Tips to remember:
Roentgen: a measure of how you are exposed Gray : how much you absorb
Sievert : how much biological damage it does
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V. Interaction of radiation with matter
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Ionization & Excitation

Ionization a process which in the removal of an electron (- charge) from an electrically neutral atom or molecule. Excitation Inner electron of an atom recieves enough energy to raise it to a higher energy level but not enough to leave the atom completely.
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Penetrating Powers of radiation

Alpha Particles - Massive particles - Travel relatively slowly in matter - Have high chances of interacting with atoms along the path & will give up some of its energy during interactions. - Lose energy rapidly - Travel short distance
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Beta particles - Very much smaller than alpha particles - Travel much faster - Undergo fewer interactions per unit length of track. - Give up energy more slowly.
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Gamma rays - Lose energy mainly by interacting with atomic electrons. - Travel very large distances in dense media. - Very difficult to absorb complete
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Neutron - Give up their energy through different interactions depending on the neutron energy - Very penetrating - Travel large distances in dense media.
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VI. Radiation detection and measurements
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Mechanisms we will use for detection of radiation

Ionization - Ion pairs produced can be collected and the number of ion pairs collected can be related to the amount of radiation causing the ionization.
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Gas filled detectors

Detector
Ionization chamber
Types of radiation
Alpha Beta
Efficiency
High w/ suitably thin end window Moderate w/ suitably thin end window <0.1 %
Comments
Used for couting & spectroscopy Used for couting & spectroscopy Used in portable radiation monitoring Useful for most energies encountered in rad protection
Gamma
X-rays
Depends on window thickness
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Detector Gieger Mller (GM counters)
Types of radiation Alpha
Efficiency Moderate w/ suitably thin end window Moderate w/ suitably thin end window <1 %
Comments Cannot discriminate between energies Cannot discriminate between energies

Cannot discriminate between energies but used in portable rad. Monitoring inst.
Beta
Gamma
X-rays
Cannot discriminate between energies but used in portable rad. Monitoring inst.
42
Detector
Types of radiation
Efficiency
Comments
Proportional counter
Alpha
High w/ suitably thin end window

Moderate w/ suitably thin end window
Used for couting & spectroscopy

Used for couting all energies; can be used for spectroscopy w/ energies < 200 kev
Beta
Gamma
<1 %
X-rays
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Scintillation
- Light released can be converted to electrical signal; size of the electrical signals depends on the no. of electrons moved into higher orbits & can therefore be related to the amount of radiation causing the scintillation.
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Detector
Main Uses
Advantages
Disadvantages Thin layer can easily be pierced by sharp objects Poorer energy resolution than solid state conductivity detectors.
ZincCompetitive Sulphide Detection of alpha Efficient for Solutions for Tomorrows Challenges particle an heavy detecting alpha ions particle ions Sodium iodide Beta More efficient for spectrocospy and detecting beta beta detection radiation than solid state conductivity detectors; does not need to be cooled.
Plastic Organic
Monitoring alpha and beta radiation
Cheap can be manufactured in diff. Shapes an size

High detection efficiency when contaminants is mixed w/ the scitillant
Liquid organics
Monitoring alpha and low beta radiation
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Thermolumniscense
The heat energy releases the electrons and the material emits light as the electrons moves back to its original level. And the light is converted to electrical signal. eg. TLD
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Chemical mechanism
This effect is observed in use of photographic film. eg. Film badge
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VII. Biological effect of radiation
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Radiation Biology
- Is the study of sequence of events within organisms which follows the absorption of energy from ionizing radiation
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Deterministic effect
- Existence of a dose threshold value (below this dose the effect is not observable) - Effect severity increases with dose - Eg.Lens opacity, skin injuries, infertility, epilation.etc
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Stochastic effect
- No threshold - Probability of the effect increases with dose - Fatal cancer or extreme genetic effects may result.
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Radiation guidelines
- A radiation worker may have a maximum dose of 50mSv a year but must have an average of 20mSv on 5yrs time.
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 50mSv 10mSv 5mSv 20mSv 5mSv
50+10+5+20+5 = 20mSv 5
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VII. Basic principle of radiation protection
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Sources of radiation
Natural sources
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