Portland Cement Concrete (PCC)

Topics to be Covered
PCC

Topics Covered

Basic Principles of Conventional PCC Introduction to Alternatives

Introduction
Quality

of Concrete:

Chemical Composition of PC Hydration and Development of Microstructure, Admixtures, and Aggregate Characteristics

Introduction
Quality

Strongly Affected by:

Placement Consolidation Curing

Performance

of PCC (or Durability)

Depends on:
Mixing Method Transportation Placement Curing in Field

Proportioning of PCC Mixes

Designers

Specify PCC Strength or Modulus of

Elasticity Materials Engineer Designs Mix (Proportioning, Mixing, Placement and Curing) Proportioning Affects Plastic as well as Hardened PCC Performance Unless Specified, Strength is
Avg. Strength of Three Tests Specimen Size is 6 by 12 in. Compressive Strength after 28 days of Curing

Proportioning of PCC Mixes

PCA

Specifies Three Qualities

Acceptable Workability of Freshly Mixed PCC (Plastic PCC) Durability, Strength, and Uniform Appearance of Hardened Concrete Economy

Proportioning of PCC Mixes

How

to Determine Proportions of Cement, Water, Fine and Coarse Aggregates, and Use of Admixtures Several Mix Design Methods
From: Arbitrary Volume Method (1:2:3 Cement:Sand:Coarse Aggregate) To: Weight and Absolute-Volume ACI Methods Weight Method is Simple and Based on Unit Wt. of PCC Absolute-Volume Uses Sp. Gr. Of Each Ingredient Absolute-Volume Method is More Accurate Main Difference Between Two Methods Amount of Fine Aggregates

Basic Step of Wt. and Vol. Methods

1. 2.

3.

Evaluate Strength Requirements Determine Water-Cement Ratio Evaluate Coarse Aggregate Requirements
a) b)

Maximum Aggregate Size Quantity of the Coarse Aggregate

4. 5. 6.

Determine Air Entrainment Requirements Evaluate Workability Requirements of the Plastic Concrete Estimate the Water Content Requirements

Basic Step of Wt. and Vol. Methods (cont.)

7.
8.

9. 10.

11.

Determine Cement Content and Type Evaluate the Need and Application Rate of Admixtures Evaluate Fine Aggregate Requirements Determine Moisture Corrections Make and Test Trial Mixes

Aggregates
Gravels, crushed rock, and sands, etc May occupy 75% of normal mixes Will influence all aspects of the concrete
Durability Structural performance Cost

Two main categories

Fine < Coarse > 5mm 5mm

Aggregate Quality
Aggregate should not contain materials which are likely to
Decompose/change in volume (e.g. coal, clay) React with cement paste (e.g. certain siliceous compounds (ASR)) Affect appearance of concrete (e.g. salt, pyrites)

Aggregate Cleanliness
Should be free from dust, clay, etc Sea dredged aggregate may be contaminated with chlorides Excessive washing is costly and may wash away fines Shape will affect workability and durability Gradation (well-graded, gap-graded etc)

Types of Aggregate
naturally occurring or industrial products
1. Normal density aggregates (most widely used) 2. Lightweight aggregates
pumice, expanded clay Leca, PFA - Lytag, Expanded Slag - Pellite

3. High density aggregate (e.g., lead) 4. Fibres (e.g. asbestos, wood, steel, glass, polymers)

Water

If you can drink it it is OK! Sea water can sometimes be used for mass concrete, but not reinforced concrete

Admixtures
Added to concrete during mixing to modify particular properties of concrete
Accelerators - (CaCl) NaCl, formate triethenolamine Retarders - Gypsum, sugars, lignosulphates Air Entrainers - Wood resins/soaps, fats and oils Water reducers (plasticizers) Others - Corrosion Inhibiting Admixtures

Strength Requirements

Variations in material, batching and mixing of PCC results in strength deviations Structural designer does not consider variability If material is provided with an avg. strength, half of placed material will be weaker than desired

Strength Requirements
Three

Quantities Needed

Specified Compressive Strength Variability or Standard Deviation of Plant Allowable Risk : ACI Suggests A Risk of 10%

Strength Requirements

90% of area under the curve has to be to the right of specified compressive strength
fcr = fc +1.34s fcr : Required Avg. Compressive Strength fc: Specified Compressive Strength s: Standard Deviation

Strength Requirements

For Mixes with Large s in Strength

fcr = fc +2.33s 3.45 (MPa) or 500 (psi) fcr : Required Avg. Compressive Strength fc: Specified Compressive Strength s: Standard Deviation

Strength Requirements

Standard deviation at least from 30 strength tests If not available use modification factors and use linear interpolation for intermediate No. of tests Multiply modification factor with s
Number of Tests 15 20 25 30 or More Modification Factor, k 1.16 1.08 1.03 1.00

Strength Requirements

For Fewer Than 15 Tests

Specified fc MPa (psi) < 20.7 (<3,000) 20 25 fcr MPa (psi)

fc +6.9 (1,000) fc +8.3 (1,200) fc +9.7 (1,400)

Very Conservative and Should Not be Used for Large Projects Not Economical

Water-Cement Ratio Requirements

Use Historical Data

Compressive Strength Non-Air Entrained

Air Entrained Water-Cement Ratio

If Pozzolan is Used: Water-Cement plus Pozzolan Ratio

Water-Cement Ratio Requirements

Prepare Three Trial Batches to Develop Relationship Similar to Previous Figure Use Table For Estimating Water-Cement Ratios for Trial Mixes

Water-Cement Ratio Requirements

For Small Projects Use Table in Lieu of Trial Mixes (Conservative Table) Not For Trial Batches

Water-Cement Ratio Requirements

Minimum of the Two is Selected

Type of Materials

Chemical Exposure

Coarse Aggregate Requirements

Aggregate grading has little direct effect on strength It does affect workability, and hence w/c ratio. Large-Dense Graded Aggregate Most Economical Mix Round Aggregate Require Less Water Than Angular Aggregates

Aggregate Grading
fundamental idea is that finer stones fill up gaps between larger stones, and remaining space is filled by cement paste.

Best Theoretical Grading

Fullers gradation provides a dense concrete, which is considered harsh.
A richer mix is formed by increasing fines.
100

% passing

50

0 0.5 1.0 Particle size as fraction of max

Coarse Aggregate Requirements

Maximum allowable aggregate size depends on dimensions of structure and capabilities of construction equipment
Maximum Aggregate Size 1/5 of Min. Clear Distance

Situation Form Dimensions

Clear Space Between Reinforcement or Prestressing Tendons Clear Space Between Reinforcement and form Unreinforced Slab

3/4 of Min. Clear Space

3/4 of Min. Clear Space 1/3 Thickness

Coarse Aggregate Requirements

Gradation of fine aggregate defined by fineness modulus

Desirable fineness modulus depends on coarse aggregate size

Air Entrainment Requirements

PCC Exposed to Freeze-Thaw Condition and De-icing Salts In Some Cases to Increase Workability Level of Entrainment Depends on Level of Exposure Mild Moderate Severe

Workability
The

ease with which a concrete mix can be handled from mixer to its finally compacted shape
Consistency - fluidity Mobility - ease of flow Compactability - ease of compaction

Internal

work required to produce full compaction.

Water Content Requirements

For

Given Slump Depends on Maximum Size and Shape of Aggregates and Air Entrainer

Water Content Requirements

Water

Requirements are for Angular Aggregates Water for Other Shapes

Reduction in Water Content Kg/m3 (lb/yd3) 12(20) 21(35)

Reduced Take

into Account Free Moisture and Absorption

Aggregate Shape Sub-angular

Gravel with Crushed Particles

Round Gravel

27(45)

Cement Content Requirements

334 Kg/m3 (564 lb/yd3) Min. for Severe Freeze-Thaw 385 Kg/m3 (650 lb/yd3) Min. for PCC Under Water

Fine Aggregate Requirements

Weight Design Mix Method Uses Table Weight of Fine Aggregate is Determined by Subtracting from Total Weight of Other Ingredients

Overview
1. Properties of Fresh Concrete
Workability, Segregation, Bleeding, and Heat of Hydration Strength Deformation Creep Shrinkage

2. Properties of Hardened Concrete

Workability Requirements
Generally

implies the ease with which a concrete mix can be handled from mixer to its finally compacted shape
Consistency - fluidity Mobility - ease of flow Compactability - ease of compaction

Internal

work required to produce full compaction.

Tests to Measure Workability

Four

widely used tests

Slump Test (US) Compacting factor test Vebe time test Flow test

Slump Test
100

Developed in 1913 in US, by Chapman Required Slump cone Tamping Rod Ruler Suitable for normal mixes of medium to high workability

300

200

Slump Test (cont)

Method Concrete put in cone in 3 layers, each layer tamped 25 times Top struck off Cone carefully lifted off Slump measured
Not Slump (mm)

True slump

suitable for dry mixes

Shear slump

Collapse slump

Compacting Factor Test

Thought to be more sensitive than the slump test Suitable for all mixes Method

mixed concrete put in top hopper allowed to fall into 2nd hopper then cylinder cylinder stuck off, concrete weighed and compared with weight of fully compacted cylinder

Other tests
Vebe

test - time for standard cone to be compacted flat by glass plate on vibrating table
for

workable concrete the Vebe time = approx 3s

Flow

test - the measured spread in mm of a standard cone on a dropping table (40mm, 15 times) of these popular on site

Neither

Workability Requirements

Segregation
The tendency for
sand-cement mortar to separate from coarse aggregate cement mortar to separate from fine aggregate

Caused by
Excessive vibration Dropping fresh concrete from a height Poor grading High workability Mixes with no air entrainment

Bleeding
Tendency for water to rise to the surface
This will cause weakness or dustiness of the surface of the finished concrete, or a line of weakness between pours Bleeding affected largely by the properties of the cement. Avoided by a finer cement high C3A content richer mix

Heat of Hydration
Exothermic reaction during setting can cause a significant temperature rise in large concrete pours. This causes expansion, then setting, then contraction. If the pour is restrained, or has a temperature differential, cracking may occur

Laboratory Testing of Concrete

Measuring Air Content in Fresh Concrete

Mixing and Handling Can Significantly Alter Air Content of Fresh Concrete Field Tests are Performed Various Test Methods:
Pressure Method (ASTM C231) Volumetric Method (ASTM C173) Gravimetric Method (ASTM C138) Chace Air Indicator (AASHTO T 199)

Pressure Method (ASTM C231)

Based on Boyles Law Measures Reduction in Volume due to Applied Pressure Change in Volume Translates to Air Content Not Suitable for Lightweight Aggregates

Stress Strain Relation

Ec= 4,731 (fc)0.5 Ec= 57,000 (fc)0.5 Poissons Ratio =0.15 to 0.20

Compressive Strength Test

ASTM C39 Specimen Size 6 by 12 or 4 by 8 in. Rate of Loading 20 to 50 psi/s Increasing Specimen Size Reduces Strength

Compressive Strength of PCC

Predominantly affected by the amount of pores in the hardened concrete. Water-cement ratio is the main determinant of strength.

Split Tensile Test

ASTM C 496 Compressive Load Applied Along Vertical Diameter Until Failure Failure Occurs Along Vertical Diameter in Tension Typical Indirect Tensile Strength, 2.5 to 3.1 Mpa (360 to 450 psi)
T = 2P/( Ld)
T= Tensile Strength, Mpa (psi) P= Load at Failure, N (psi) L = Length of Specimen, mm (in.) D = diameter of Specimen, mm (in.)

Flexural Strength Test

ASTM C 78 Typical Specimen Size 6 by 6 by 18 Load applied at a Rate of 125 and 175 psi/min R= 0.62 to 0.83 (fc)0.5 R = PL/(bd3) R= 7.5 to 10 (fc)0.5
R= Flexural Strength, MPa (psi) P= Load at Failure, N (psi) L = Span Length, mm (in.) d = Avg. Width of Spec., mm (in.) b = Avg. Depth of Spec., mm (in.)

Creep
Load sustained Load removed Immediate elastic recovery Creep Creep recovery Permanent deformation

Elastic deformation on loading Time

Creep
Magnitude of creep is affected by
More cement in mix - more creep Higher w/c ratio - more creep Higher relative humidity - lower creep Greater age - lower creep Rapid Hardening - lower creep

Permeability & Porosity

both related to pore spaces in the concrete Both cement paste and aggregate contain pores, and in addition there may be voids due to incomplete compaction Cement paste is made up of gel & cement particles.
Gel ~ 28% pores with a permeability of ~ 7 x 10-16 m/s. Cement paste has 0 to 40% interconnected capillary pores, with a permeability 20 to 200 times higher than gel.

Absorption, Permeability & Diffusion

All these three factors related to ease with which a fluid will pass through cement paste along capillary pores.
Absorption is process by which concrete takes in a liquid by capillary attraction Permeability quantitatively characterises ease by which a fluid passes through it Diffusion is where a vapour gas or ion can pass through concrete under the action of a concentration gradient

Permeability of Cement paste

Age days fresh 5 6 8 13 24 ult. Coeff of perm. (m/s) 2 x 10-6 4 x 10-10 1 x 10-10 4 x 10-11 5 x 10-12 1 x 10-12 6 x 10-13

Effect of Water-Cement Ratio

150 Perm (10-14 m/s)

100 50

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 W/c ratio

Mixing
Drum mixer - common on site Pan Mixer - larger sizes, industry, labs etc By hand - to be avoided where possible Ready mix - most often used for sites

Placing
By skip, wheelbarrow, shute, shovel or concrete pump Place at final position - do not vibrate into position Vibrate using poker - approx 10 seconds at 0.5 m intervals Level with wooden float, leave for a while, then finish with steel float

Testing Hardened Concrete in-situ

Visual Inspection+
Probably the most important assessment Equipment
Notebook, camera, binoculars, ladder

To observe
Cracks, spalling, honeycombing Rust stains, flaking paint, efflorescence Delamination, a planar crack at rebar depth
tap with a hammer and listen for a dull sound or use infra-red thermography or radar

Assessing reinforcement corrosion

Half Cell Potential Measurements
A half-cell is a device for assessing reinforcement corrosion in concrete Simply a piece of metal in its own solution Cu in CuSO4 solution allows electrical potentials to be assessed does not work for carbonated concrete!

Carbonation
Equipment
Phenolphthalein Solution

Spray solution on freshly exposed concrete

will turn pink where alkali is present

Limitations
Phenolphthalein turns pink at pH 9, but depassivation can take place at pH 11 Surface must be freshly exposed - destructive

Chlorides
Usually involves taking powdered samples and measuring
total (acid soluble) chlorides water soluble

But chlorides can be squeezed out of concrete

free ion concentration

Resistivity
As corrosion is electro-chemical, the resistance of the concrete will have a bearing on the corrosion rate A four probe resistivity meter can be used
two outer probes pass a current inner probes measure voltage difference

Curing
If left in contact with water, concrete will continue to gain strength for many months Otherwise all free water evaporates or is used up in the hydration process, and no further hydration can continue Curing ensures that water for hydration is available as long as possible

Curing
Air-cured after 1 and 3 months, dry at test

Moist-cured, dry at test

100

Moist cured, moist at test

Air-cured after 1 month, dry at test Water curing after 9 months

50

Air-cured, dry at test Air-cured, saturated at test

0 0 6 Age (months)

12

Shrinkage
3 principal types of shrinkage/expansion:
Plastic Shrinkage - caused by settlement of solids and loss of free water from plastic concrete. Autogenous Shrinkage - Cement gel has a lower volume than the water and cement that makes it. So at a constant water content shrinkage takes place. Drying Shrinkage - Loss of water from cement gel, after loss of water from pores and capillaries.

Drying Shrinkage
Expansion in water

Shrinkage on drying Alternate wetting and drying

Shrinkage in air

Avoidance of Cracked Concrete

If concrete is restrained, movement joints or anti-crack reinforcement must be used. Heat of hydration, and drying shrinkage must be minimised. If concrete is not restrained, differential heat of hydration and drying shrinkage should be minimised.

Concrete Durability

Definition
Resistance to physical and chemical deterioration of concrete resulting from
Interaction with environment - external Interaction between constituents - internal

Protection of embedded steel from corrosion processes

Durability
Concrete Deterioration

Physical Deterioration

Chemical Deterioration

Reinforcement Corrosion

Reinforcement Corrosion
Significant corrosion of steel will take place only as a result of electro-chemical or galvanic action. In the absence of dissimilar metals, corrosion is initiated by local imperfections in the metal (e.g. different steel crystalline structures) or local differences in the concentration of electrolyte.

Reinforcement Corrosion (Initiation)

2H2O+O2+4e- = 4(OH)Fe2+ + 2(OH)- = Fe(OH)2 then Fe(OH)3
air Fe2+ Cathode Fe2+ Cathode electrons Anode Rust (Fe(OH)3)

H2O droplet

Steel rebar

electrons

Reinforcement Corrosion (Continuation)

Once rust has been formed, the steel surface beneath it becomes deficient in oxygen and becomes the anode. Corrosion then continues under the rust covering.
New rust

Fe2+

Durability
Concrete Deterioration

Physical Deterioration

Chemical Deterioration

Reinforcement Corrosion

Carbonation

Chlorides

Carbonation
Step 1 H2O+CO2 = HCO3- + H+ HCO3- = CO32- + H+ Step 2 Ca(OH)2 + 2H+ + CO32= CaCO3 +2H2O This neutralisation reaction penetrates gradually from the concrete surface. Penetration = k x time1/2

Factors affecting carbonation

Humidity - ideally 50-70%
lower, not enough water higher water inhibits CO2 diffusion

Temperature - worse in hot environments Concentration of CO2 gas in atmosphere

Normally 0.03% but increasing annually Higher in cities, due to motor vehicles and fossil fuel burning

Carbon Dioxide
The most important greenhouse gas Global concentration has increased from 270 to 350 ppm since 1700 Expected 500 ppm by 2050

Carbonation-induced steel corrosion

Occurs due to the breakdown of alkaline conditions Requires over 75% relative humidity But significant carbonation occurs at lower humidity's than this So corrosion will only be significant if alternate wetting and drying is present

Typical rate of penetration of carbonation

Depth of Carbonation (mm) 5 10 15 20 Age (years) 20Mpa 40 Mpa Concrete Concrete 0.5 2 4 7
So cover is vitally important

4 16 36 64

Factors affecting carbonation (cont)

There seems to be some dispute about how important the concrete mix is, but
A high w/c ratio will lead to a greater depth of penetration A sulphate-resisting cement may lead to 50% greater penetration A PBFC may lead to 200% greater penetration

Other effects of carbonation

Increase in strength, as new free water may assist continued hydration of cement Carbonation shrinkage Associated small weight gain

Durability
Concrete Deterioration

Physical Deterioration

Chemical Deterioration

Reinforcement Corrosion

Carbonation

Chlorides

Chlorides
Very high concentrations can lead to deterioration of concrete,
Ca(OH)2 is leached from the cement paste increasing porosity and decreasing strength

In sufficient concentrations Cl- ions can break down the passive oxide film on the rebar, and allow the corrosion process to start

Sources of Chlorides
Contact with sea water From de-icing salts From beach or sea dredged aggregates From accelerators (chloride-based admixtures now prohibited, however)

Factors affecting chloride attack

Concentration of chlorides - corrosion will not
occur below a threshold level (somewhere between 0.1 and 0.4%)

Humidity, alternate wetting and drying Temperature - worse in hot climates Concrete permeability and chloride binding capacity, cement content and type
PFA and GGBS will help resist chloride ingress

Coeff of chloride diffusion (cm2s-1 x 10-9)

Type of Cement
60

30 OPC GGBS 45% PFA 30% 0

30

50 Strength (Mpa)

70

Durability
Concrete Deterioration

Physical Deterioration

Chemical Deterioration

Reinforcement Corrosion

Durability
Concrete Deterioration

Physical Deterioration

Chemical Deterioration

Reinforcement Corrosion

Sulphate

Acid

Sea water

Alkaliaggregate reaction

Leaching

Sulphate attack
Sources - Ground water, Industrial fill, Lake and sea water Reactions
Sulphates + Calcium Hydroxide = Calcium Sulphate (gypsum) Sulphates + Calcium Aluminate = Ettringite

Strength loss and expansive degradation result

Prevention of sulphate attack

Use PFA or GGBS Use low heat or sulphate-resisting cement Produce a good quality concrete Use a physical barrier
wrapping or bituminous or other coatings

Note - salt weathering on sabkha

Durability
Concrete Deterioration

Physical Deterioration

Chemical Deterioration

Reinforcement Corrosion

Sulphate

Acid

Sea water

Alkaliaggregate reaction

Leaching

Durability
Concrete Deterioration

Physical Deterioration

Chemical Deterioration

Reinforcement Corrosion

Sulphate

Acid

Sea water

Alkaliaggregate reaction

Leaching

Durability
Concrete Deterioration

Physical Deterioration

Chemical Deterioration

Reinforcement Corrosion

Sulphate

Acid

Sea water

Alkaliaggregate reaction

Leaching

Durability
Concrete Deterioration

Physical Deterioration

Chemical Deterioration

Reinforcement Corrosion

Sulphate

Acid

Sea water

Alkaliaggregate reaction

Leaching

Durability
Concrete Deterioration

Physical Deterioration

Chemical Deterioration

Reinforcement Corrosion

Durability
Concrete Deterioration

Physical Deterioration

Chemical Deterioration

Reinforcement Corrosion

Cracking

Frost

Attrition

Fire

Durability
Concrete Deterioration

Physical Deterioration

Chemical Deterioration

Reinforcement Corrosion

Cracking

Frost

Attrition

Fire

Durability
Concrete Deterioration

Physical Deterioration

Chemical Deterioration

Reinforcement Corrosion

Cracking

Frost

Attrition

Fire

Durability
Concrete Deterioration

Physical Deterioration

Chemical Deterioration

Reinforcement Corrosion

Cracking

Frost

Attrition

Fire

Good durability by design

Adequate falls and drainage of slabs
reduces time of contact with water etc

Adequate cover for exposure conditions

protects against carbonation and chlorides

Well designed mix with sufficient cement

reduces permeability and increases alkalinity

Properly designed dense mix

prevents segregation, and plastic shrinkage, and reduces permeability

Good durability in construction

THE FOUR Cs Ensure design Cover is maintained Ensure sufficient Cement and proper w/c ratio Ensure adequate Compaction so there is no honeycombing Ensure good Curing so that design strength is attained (esp. At surface)