The Digestive System

Biology 12

Intro

The human bodys gastrointestinal tract or alimentary canal is up to 10m long Along this pathway:
Ingestion Digestion Absorption Egestion

About 95% of ingested food is absorbed and made available to our body, the rest is egested

Digestion Defined

Digestion is the breakdown of substances (other organisms!) into small molecules that can be absorbed by cells There are two classes of digestion:

Physical Chemical

Physical Digestion

The breakdown of food into small pieces without chemically changing them into different substances Helps facilitate chemical digestion by increasing surface area

Increased surface area exposes food pieces to enzymes and other substrate molecules and increases the rate of metabolic reactions Examples: teeth, stomach (HCl), intestines (bile)

Chemical Digestion

The breakdown of food through chemical reactions into small soluble molecules that cells can absorb

Lipids are broken down through hydrolysis reactions assisted by enzyme activity: lipid + water glycerol + fatty acids (lipase enzyme)

Chemical Digestion

Carbohydrates are also hydrolyzed with the help of enzymes into dissacharidesand then into glucose Starch + water maltose (amylase enzyme) Proteins are broken into shorter polypeptides by the enzyme pepsin, and then cleaved into amino acids by other protease enzymes More on these processes later

Essential nutrients

Amazingly, our body can construct most of the molecules necessary for proper function However, there are a number of substances that the body cannot synthesize and must ingest

Essential Amino Acids (8) Essential Fatty Acids (2) Essential Vitamins (4 water and 5 fat soluble) Trace Elements (many)

Part 1: The Pathway to the Stomach

Mouth

Esophagus

Stomach

The Mouth

The mouth has a number of digestive features:

Teeth

Omnivores, like ourselves, have incisors (rip/shred), canines (hold/tear), premolars and molars (grind) Teeth mechanically break down food into pieces Secreted into mouth by salivary glands (roof of mouth and under tongue) Moistens food to allow taste sensations and lubricate it for transport through the digestive system

Saliva

The Mouth

Dissolves substances into aqueous solutions (water) for higher reaction rates Contains the enzyme amylase which converts starch into dissacharides
Secreted into mouth (and other organs) to coat epithelial tissues/surfaces Made of water, mucins (glycoproteins), and salts Lubricates the movement of food Serves as a barrier against noxious substances Holds food together in a bolus (ball of food)

Mucus

Swallowing

Food entering the mouth is transported to the stomach by swallowing

Swallowing is a very complex process controlled by nerve and muscle tissue coordination

Swallowing (Deglutition)
1. 2. 3. 4.

5.
6.

Pressure of bolus on the pharynx stimulates muscle contractions in the pharynx The soft palate seals off the nasopharynx to prevent food from entering the nose The larynx (voice box) move up to stop the passage of food through the trachea (throat) This stops breathing and widens the esophagus for passage of the bolus Food passes the trachea to the stomach through muscle contractions called peristalsis The trachea is ultimately blocked by a small flap called the epiglottis

Part 2: The Stomach

The stomach is a stretchable, muscular sac

J-shaped organ (0.5 2L capacity) 3 layers of muscle tissue Upper section dotted with deep depressions called gastric pits which secrete gastric juice and mucus (~500mL after a large meal!) Has two sphincter portals: (like draw strings)

Entrance: cardiac sphincter Exit: pyloric sphincter

Stomach Wall Secretions

Parietal Cells

Secretes roughly 2L of concentrated (pH ~1-3) HCl each day HCl mechanically breaks down tissues and proteins into smaller pieces Acidic secretions make the stomach inhospitable to most bacteria (exception: heliobacter pyloria) Activates pepsinogen

Stomach Wall Secretions

Peptic or Chief Cells

Secrete the enzyme pepsinogen Pepsinogens shape is changed to an active state by HCl (pH denatures the protein-based enzyme into the desired form!) The active form of the enzyme, pepsin, catalyzes the chemical breakdown of protein into short amino acid chains No effect on carbs and fats!

Stomach Wall Secretions

Epithelial Mucus Cells

Secrete mucus from gastric pits in stomach wall Lubricates and facilitates food transport Protects walls from abrasive food particles Protects the protein-based walls of the stomach from autodigestion by gastric juices! Failure of mucus results in ulcers (bacteria, stress, and diet causes)

Stimuli in the Stomach

The nervous system controls the digestive activity of the stomach (secretions, muscle contractions) by releasing the hormone gastrin when protein-rich food is sensed or an inhibitor when the stomach is empty Other hormones stimulate the release of bile and pancreatic juices

Sowhere are we?

It takes the bolus about 9 seconds to get from your mouth to your stomach In the stomach, the partially digested food mass is called chyme This acid chyme remains in the stomach for 2-6 hours (depending on the type of food) before release by the pyloric sphincter into the small intestine

Part 3: The Small Intestine

Small refers to diameter, not length

About 6m long in an adult human Tapers from ~3cm diameter at the pyloric sphincter to ~2cm diameter at the entrance to the large intestine (ileocecal valve) Duodenum (fixed C-shaped section ~25-30cm) Jejunum (4-5m long) Ileum (1-1.5m)

Three major sections of the small intestine:

Big Events in the Small Intestine

The acid chyme is neutralized in the small intestine by the bicarbonate ions in pancreatic juices A host of enzymes from the pancreas are released in the first two sections of the small intestine to break down all four basic nutrients Bile salts are released from the liver gall bladder intestine to emulsify fats (mechanical digestion) Most digestion occurs in the duodenum Most absorption occurs in latter intestinal sections

Specialized Structure

The small intestine has a number of special features that allows it to absorb nutrients:

Length (increases surface area) Folding (slows the passage of food and increases surface area) Villi (finger-like projections, ~30 per mm2, ~1mm long, increases surface area) Microvilli (villi epithelial cell projections increase surface area)

The surface area of the small intestine is about the size of a tennis court!

Starch Digestion and Absorption

Pancreatic juice is released into the duodenum through the pancreatic duct This juice contains pancreatic amylase that helps hydrolyze starch into disaccharides like maltose, lactose, and sucrose Additional enzymes such as maltase, lactase, and sucrase further reduce disaccharides into simple sugars namely, glucose Glucose is actively transported (against its concentration gradient) into villi capillaries and taken directly to the liver The liver converts some glucose into fat, and some into glycogen (and vice versa) in the hours between meals maintaining blood sugar levels

Protein Digestion and Absorption

Pancreatic juice contains (trypsin active form of trypsinogen) which, like pepsin in the stomach, aids the break down of proteins into shorter polypeptides The juice also contains peptidases which help hydrolyze short polypeptides into amino acids Amino acids are actively transported by proteins in the villi wall and taken to the liver by capilliaries for processing The liver breaks down some amino acids to produce carbohydrates, fats, blood proteins, bile, etc. The break down of amino acids into glucose releases toxic ammoniawhich is converted to ureawhich is transported to the kidneys for excretion!

Fat Digestion and Absorption

The liver makes ~1L of bile each day

Contains water, electrolytes, bile acids, cholesterol, phospholipids, and bilirubin Green color due to bilirubin Released into gall bladder for storage and concentration (up to five-fold concentration!) Bile salts are able to form micelles to dissolve fat-soluble vitamins Many waste products (500mg of cholesterol per day) are eliminated from the body by secretion into bileif not gall stones!

Fat Digestion and Absorption

Bile emulsifies fats (mechanically) into droplets that are broken down further into fatty acids and glycerol by pancreatic lipase enzymes Fatty acids are lipid soluble and pass through the villi membranes into lacteals (central lymph vessel of the villi) Solution called lymph is then carried to the heart and then distributed to the bodys cells through blood circulation

Nucleic Acid Digestion and Absorption

Pancreatic juice released into the small intestine contains nuclease enzymes that help break down RNA and DNA into nucleotides Nucleotidase enzymes secreted by the small intestine itself further aid in the break down nucleotides into phosphate, sugars, and nitrogen bases These nucleotide components are then absorbed into capilliaries and taken to the liver

Part 4: Accessory Organs

The Pancreas

An elongated, flattened organ that lays partially behind the stomach deep in the chest cavity Acts as both an endocrine (hormone releasing) gland and exocrine (digestive processes) gland Two key hormones released into blood from the islets of Langerhans (2000 of them!):

Insulin released when blood glucose high Glucagon released when blood glucose low

Part 4: Accessory Organs

The exocrine (digestive) aspect of the pancreas is stimulated when chyme enters the duodenum The hormones secretin (in response to acid) and cholecystokinin or CCK ( in response to protein and fat) are sent by duodenum cells to pancreas Pancreatic juice is produced and released into the duodenum in response to these hormones A host of enzymes are released HCO3- (bicarbonate ions) in the juice change the chyme pH from ~2-3 to ~7-8 (slightly basic!)

Part 4: Accessory Organs

The Liver

The largest internal organ! (about 1.5 kg) Lobed (large right lobe, small left lobe), triangular shape All blood from the intestines is brought back to the liver through the hepatic portal vein As we have seen

Liver produces bile (emulsifies fats) Liver converts glucose glycogen in response to pancreatic hormones

Part 4: Accessory Organs

The liver also

Converts toxic ammonia (from amino acid and nucleotide breakdown) into urea excreted in urine by the kidneys Detoxifies blood by breaking down: alcohol, hormones, antibiotics, drugs, excess vitamins, etc. Stores some vitamins Synthesizes blood proteins like albumin (regulates osmotic pressure of blood) and fibrinogen (aids in blood clotting) Destroys old red blood cells (recycles iron) and converts hemoglobin into bilirubin/biliverdin (bile pigments)

Part 5: The Large Intestine

The last section of the gastrointestinal tract is large in diameter (6.5cm) and extend ~1.5m from the end of the ileum to the anus The entrance to the large intestine is called the ileocaecal valve (another sphincter) There are four sections of the large intestine:

Caecum and Ascending Colon Transverse Colon Descending Colon Rectum

Large Intestine Functions

10x more bacteria in your gut than cells in your body!

Movement and compaction of undigested food (soon to be called feces) toward the anus Absorption of water (about 10L of water per day!) and some salts (sodium, etc.) E. coli bacteria present in large intestine

Produces feces (60% bacteria!) Synthesizes vitamin K for liver

Defecation contraction of muscles in the rectum that forces open the anal sphincter (anus)

Digestive System Issues

Your turn! Put together a 5 minute presentation of a digestive issue of interest to you. Your presentation should meet the following criteria:
1. 2. 3. 4.

Have clear linkage to digestion (approved) Provide a single page handout (1 side) Make use of visuals Be referenced

Ideas

Ulcers Indigestion Heartburn Cirrhosis Jaundice Diarrhea Constipation Flatulence Incontinence

Gall stones Diabetes Polyps Hepatitis Dysphasia Hernia Hemorrhoids Irritable Bowel Syndrome