A WAN is a data communications network that covers a relatively broad geographic area and often uses transmission facilities

provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies.

WAN technologies function at the lower three layers of the OSI reference model: the physical layer, the data link layer, and the network layer.

There are two prevailing definitions WAN

book definition A network that spans large geographical locations, usually to interconnect multiple Local Area Networks (LANs).

practical definition A network that traverses a public network or commercial carrier, using one of several WAN technologies.

 WANs are generally grouped into three separate connection types

Point-to-Point technologies Circuit-switched technologies Packet-switched technologies

 Often called dedicated or leased lines Usually the most expensive form of WAN technology. Leased from a service provider, and provide guaranteed bandwidth from location to another (hence point-to-point). Cost is determined by the distance of the connection, and the amount of bandwidth allocated. Generally, point-to-point links require no call-setup, and the connection is usually always on. Examples of point-to-point technologies include
T1 lines T3 lines

 Circuit-Switched technologies require call-setup to occur before information can be transferred. The session is usually torn down once data transfer is complete (this is identified as an OnDemand Circuit). Circuit-switched lines are generally low-speed compared to point-to-point lines. Examples of circuit-switched technologies include:
Dial-up ISDN

 Share a common infrastructure between all the providers subscribers. Thus, bandwidth is not guaranteed, but is instead allocated on a best effort basis. Packet-switched technologies are ill-suited for applications that require consistent bandwidth, but are considerably less expensive than dedicated point-to-point lines. Examples of packet-switched technologies include:
Frame-Relay X25

8.1

How a WAN Works

Main Ideas
Circuit-switched networks use a direct, physical connection to transmit data back and forth. Message-switched networks send entire transmissions between intermediaries. Packetswitched networks route packets through virtual circuits.

Key Terms
carrier services remote access dial-up networking (DUN) Virtual Private Network (VPN) circuit-switched network message switching packet switching Packet Switching Exchange (PSE)

8.1

How a WAN Works

Carriers
After a network grows beyond the confines of the LAN, a carrier service is required. Carriers provide a variety of services which are connected through remote access.
carrier services Data transfer services provided by telecommunications companies.
remote access A direct connection to a network using regular dial-up lines. After the connection is made, the user can work on the network as if in the office.

8.1

How a WAN Works

Carriers
Remote access connections are established through either a dial-up network (DUN) or virtual private network (VPN).
The advantages of a VPN are that users benefit from faster network connections, privacy, and security.
dial-up networking (DUN) A client service using regular telephone lines to connect to a network. Virtual Private Network (VPN) An alternative to using a dial-up network connection. Is a network connection between two computers. With a VPN, a remote user can securely access the internal network from a remote location.

8.1

How a WAN Works

Switching Technologies
Data in the WAN is transported through various technologies:
Circuit switching Message switching

circuit-switched network A network that creates a direct physical connection between the sender and receiver.

message switching A technology used to route an entire message from one system to another. That message is routed through intermediate (go-between) station and does not involve a direct physical connection between the sender and receiver.

8.1

How a WAN Works

Switching Technologies
Message switching sends the entire message to intermediary stations that decide which route to use.

8.1

How a WAN Works

Switching Technologies
Packet switching is commonly found in LANs.
Packets are routed through Packet Switching Exchanges until they reach their destination.
packet switching A transmission method in which all transmissions are broken into small units and sent over the network. Packets are reassembled at the destination computer.
Packet Switching Exchange (PSE) Gobetweens in the packet switching process. The PSE inspects the packets destination address, consults a routing table, and forwards the packet at the highest possible speed.

8.1

How a WAN Works

Switching Technologies
Packet-switching networks send packets along the best route available.

 Setup, data transfer, and teardown phases as in a circuitswitched network (CSN) Resource allocated during setup phase, as in a CSN, or on demand as in a datagram network (DN) As in DN, data are packetized and each packet carries an address in the header. The address has local jurisdiction, not end-to-end jurisdiction. As in CSN, all packets follow the same path established during the connection VCN is normally implemented in the data link layer, while CSN is in physical layer and DN in the network layer

 Two types of addressing in a virtual-circuit network: global and local (virtual-circuit identifier: VCI) Global address is used only to create a VCI Virtual Circuit Identifier

 Setup phase, Data transfer phase, Teardown phase Switch and tables in a virtual-circuit network

 Source-to-destination data transfer in a virtual-circuit network

 In virtual-circuit switching, all packets belonging to the same source and destination travel the same path; but the packets may arrive at the destination with different delays if resource allocation is on demand.

8.2

Sending Data across a WAN

Main Ideas
X.25 is a packet-switching protocol originally designed for analog telephone lines. Frame relay uses permanent, virtual circuits and reliable, digital lines to transmit data.

Key Terms
X.25 Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) packet assembler/ disassembler (PAD) Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE) frame relay Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) cell relay broadband ISDN (B-ISDN)

ATM transmits data, voice, and video over many types of lines.

8.2

Sending Data across a WAN

X.25 Packet-Switching Protocol
Computers on an X.25 network can receive and transmit data at the same time. This is also called full-duplex communication.
X.25 A connection-oriented, packet-switching protocol designed for use on analog telephone lines. Computers on an X.25 network can receive and transmit data at the same time.

8.2

Sending Data across a WAN

X.25 Packet-Switching Protocol
The X.52 protocol concentrates on the interface through which transmission flows. The interface is made up of the following devices:
Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) Packet assembler/dissembler (PAD)

Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) X.25 device terminology. There are no computers, hosts, or nodes. Instead, sending and receiving computers are referred to simply as this.

packet assembler/disassembler (PAD) A device in X.25 transmissions that prepares packets for transmission and disassembles the packets that come in.

8.2

Sending Data across a WAN

X.25 Packet-Switching Protocol
Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE) Packet switching exchanges (PSEs) Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment (DCE) Packets are sent here from the DTE or PAD. A DCE might be a modem or packet switch. A DCE is located at each end of the connection.

X.25 and Frame Relay

 Designed to provide a low cost alternative for data communication over public networks
Pay only for bandwidth actually used

Ideal for bursty communication over low quality circuits Standard provides error detection and correction for reliable data transfer X.25 standard approved in 1976 by CCITT (now
known as ITU)

Can support speeds of 9.6 Kbps to 2 Mbps Can provide multiplexing of up to 4095 virtual circuits over on DTE-DCE link

 Data Terminal Equipment (DTE)

Terminals, personal computers, and network hosts Located on premises of subscriber Modems and packet switches Usually located at carrier facility Switches that make up the carrier network

Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE) Packet Switching Exchange (PSE)

PSE

X.25 WAN

PSE

Modem DCE

Personal Computer DTE

Terminal DTE

Modem DCE PSE PSE Modem DCE Server DTE

 Used for DTE devices that are too simple to implement X.25 (such as character-mode terminals) Acts as intermediary device between DTE and DCE Performs three functions
Buffering to store data until a device is ready to process it Packet Assembly Packet Disassembly

PSE

X.25 Packet Data

PAD
Terminal DTE Modem DCE PSE Data

Assembly/ Disassembly

Buffer

Application
Presentation Other Services Session Transport Network Data Link Physical PLP LAPB
x.21 bis, EIA/TIA-232, EIA/TIA-449, EIA-530, G.703

X.25 Protocol Suite

 Several well-known standards are used for X.25 networks

X.21bis supports up to 2 Mbps
15-pin connector

RS-232 (EIA/TIA-232) supports up to 19.2 Kbps

25-pin connector

RS-449 (EIA/TIA-449) supports up to 64 Kbps

37-pin connector

V.35 supports up to 2 Mbps

34-pin connector

Uses serial communications in either asynchronous or synchronous modes

 Link Access Procedure, Balanced (LAPB) is the protocol used for this layer LAPB is a version of HDLC
HDLC in Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM) DTE and DCE are peers and can both perform all functions

LAPB manages communication and packet framing between DTE and DCE devices Makes sure that frames are delivered in sequence and error-free
Uses sliding window of 8 or 128 frames

 Packet Layer Protocol (PLP) is the X.25 network layer protocol PLP manages calls between a pair DTE devices using a Permanent Virtual Circuit (PVC) or a Switched Virtual Circuit (SVC) PLP handles segmentation, reassembly, bit padding and error and flow control PLP uses X.121 Addressing Scheme to setup a virtual circuit

 Call Setup
Used to setup virtual circuit for SVC Used for transferring data with both SVC and PVC Used when SVC call has been established but no data is currently being transferred Used to end communication between DTEs for a SVC Used to synchronize DTE and DCE for all virtual circuits that exist between them

Data Transfer Idle

Call Clearing

Restarting

DTE to DCE Interface

Call Request

DCE to DTE Interface

Call Setup Phase

Incoming Call Call Accepted Call Connected

Data Transfer Phase

Data Packet Incoming Data Data Packet Incoming Data

Call Clearing Phase

Clear Request Clear Indication Clear Response Clear Confirm

 Frame Relay was originally designed for use on Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) Usually considered a replacement for X.25 using more advanced digital and fiber optic connections Does not perform error correction at intermediate nodes making it faster than X.25
When an error is detected (FCS) the frame is discarded and correction is left up to higher layer protocols

Original standard proposed in 1984 but widespread acceptance did not occur until the late 1980s

 Data Terminal Equipment (DTE)

Terminals, Personal Computers, routers, and bridges typically at the customer location Typically packet switches owned by the carrier that transmit data through the WAN

Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE)

Packet Switch DCE

Packet Switch DCE

Personal Computer DTE Terminal DTE

Frame Relay WAN

Packet Switch DCE

Packet Switch DCE Network Host DTE

 To handle frames from other protocols a FRAD is used to provide conversion to Frame Relay packets A FRAD can either be a separate device or part of a router/switch

FRAD

Frame Relay

FRAD

Application
Presentation Session Transport Network Data Link Physical LAPF Any Standard Frame Relay Protocol Other Services

 No specific protocol is defined Any protocol recognized by ANSI can be implemented

 Link Access Protocol for Frame Modes Services (LAPF) is the protocol defined for Frame Relay Layer 2 services LAPF is a version of HDLC
Does not provide flow or error control Uses Address field for DLCI (addressing) as well as for congestion control

Flag

Address

Information

FCS

Flag

DLCI

C/R EA

DLCI

FECN BECN

DE EA

DLCI: (10 bits) Data Link Connection Identifier is used to identify the Virtual Circuit number
C/R: (1 bit) Provided for up layers to determine commands and responses EA: (1 bit) Determines if this byte is last byte of address (0=more, 1=last)

FECN: (1 bit) Forward Explicit Congestion Notification indicates congestion in the direction the frame is traveling
BECN: (1 bit) Backward Explicit Congestion Notification indicates congestion in the opposite direction the frame is traveling DE: (1 bit) Discard Eligibility indicates that a frame is low priority when set

 To increase the number of virtual circuits the DLCI can be expanded from 10 bits to 16 bits and 23 bits The EA field is set to 0 to indicate that additional address bytes are present. The last address byte will have a 1 in the EA field

Two-byte Address (10 bit DLCI)

DLCI DLCI DLCI

FECN BECN

C/R 0 DE 1

C/R 0
FECN BECN

Three-byte Address (16 bit DLCI)

DLCI
DLCI DLCI

DE
0

0
1

C/R 0
FECN BECN

Four-byte Address (23 bit DLCI)

DLCI

DE

0 0

DLCI DLCI 0

 Two Byte Address Format

0 1-15 16-991 992-1001 1002-1022 1023 In-channel signaling
Reserved Assigned using Frame Relay connection procedures Layer 2 management of Frame Relay service Reserved In channel layer management

Three Byte Address Format

0 1-1023 Reserved 1024-63,487 63,488-64,511 64,512-65,534 65,535 In-channel signaling Assigned using Frame Relay connection procedures Layer 2 management of Frame Relay service Reserved In channel layer management

Four Byte Address Format

0 1-131,071 131,072-8,126,463 8,126,464-8,257,535 8,257,536-8,388,606 8,288,607 In-channel signaling Reserved Assigned using Frame Relay connection procedures Layer 2 management of Frame Relay service Reserved In channel layer management

 Original Frame Relay standard only covered PVC SVC support was added but does not have widespread implementation PVC States
Data Transfer data is being transmitted between DTE devices Idle connection is still active but no data is being transferred Call Setup virtual circuit between DTE devices is established Call Termination virtual circuit between DTE devices is terminated

SVC required the addition of two additional states

 Because of the shared resources of a virtual circuit, congestion can cause the loss of packets as buffers become full Frame Relay defines a congestion control mechanism using the FECN and BECN bits in the address field When a switch determines that congestion has occurred it will set the FECN bit on packets traveling in the direction of the congestion to alert the receiver to slow down requests for data. The BECN bit will be set for packets going in the opposite direction of the congestion to let the sender know to send data more slowly The FECN and BECN bits will allow higher layer protocols to manage flow. Discard Eligible bit is used to identify frames that are low priority and can be discarded in the event of congestion

 LMI is a set of extensions to Frame Relay developed in 1990 by Cisco Systems, StrataCom, Northern Telecom, and Digital Equipment Corporation LMI provides global addressing which allows additional management capability such as standard address resolution and discovery LMI allows status messages to be passed between DCE and DTE devices to provide communication and synchronization (uses DLCI 1023 on a 2-byte address) LMI specifies multicast capability to allow creation of multicast groups to limit bandwidth use

X.25 and Frame Relay

X.25 Layer 1 Specification Layer 2 Protocol Family Layer 3 Support Error Correction Propagation Delay Ease of Implementation Good for Interactive Applications Good for Voice Good for LAN File Transfer Yes HDLC PLP Node to Node High Difficult Too Slow No Slow Frame Relay None HDLC None None Low Easy Yes Yes Yes

 Many X.25 networks have been replaced by Frame Relay or X.25 over Frame Relay Networks X.25 still in use for low bandwidth applications such as credit card verification It is likely that ATM Networks will ultimately replace Frame Relay and X.25 Networks

8.2

Sending Data across a WAN

Frame Relay
Frame relay is faster than the X.52 protocol. Frame relay networks connecting LANs to a WAN rely on routers and switching equipment.
frame relay A newer form of packet switching that relies on digital technologies, such as fiber optic and ISDN.

 Two approaches for the VC setup

Permanent virtual circuit (PVC): Switched virtual circuit (SVC): setup, data transfer, teardown

Frame Relay is a virtual circuit wide area network VCIs in Frame Relay are called DLCIs(Data Link Connection Identifier)

Frame relay operates at a higher speed. It can easily be used instead of a mesh of T-1 or T-3 lines (1.544 Mbps or 44.376 Mbps) Frame relay operates just the physical and data link layers. It is good as a backbone to provide services to protocols that already have a network layer protocol, such as Internet It allows bursty data It allows a frame size of 9000 bytes accommodating all LAN frame sizes It is less expensive than other traditional WANs It has error detection at the data link layer only. There is no flow control pr error control X.25 Leased Lines Frame Relay

 Frame relay operates only at the physical and data link layers

 Frame relay requires congestion control, because

Frame Relay does not have a network layer No flow control at the data link layer Frame Relay allows the user to transmit bursty data Two bits in the frame are used BECN(Backward Explicit Congestion Notification) FECN(Forward Explicit Congestion Notification) Priority level of the frame for traffic control Discarding frame to avoid the congestion or collapsing

Congestion avoidance

Discard eligibility(DE):

FRAD

 Asynchronous Transfer Mode ATM is the cell relay protocol designed by ATM forum and adopted by ITU-T ATM uses asynchronous TDM Cells are transmitted along virtual circuits Design Goals
Large bandwidth and less susceptible to noise degradation Interface with existing systems without lowering their effectiveness Inexpensive implementation Support the existing telecommunications hierarchies Connection-oriented to ensure accurate and predictable delivery Many functions are hardware implementable

 Multi-speed network environment that provides a variety of complex network services Can carry voice, data, video separately or simultaneously Can be used in LANs, MANs, or WANs Fixed-lenth packets (cells) Allows multiple logical connections to be multiplexed Minimal error and flow control capabilities Connection-oriented virtual channel

 Similar to frame relay Difference? Frame relay switches variable length frames within frame relay cloud from source to destination ATM switches fixed-length cells (48 byte information field, 5 byte header) Based on packet switching (connection-oriented) Cell sequence integrity preserved via virtual channel VCC virtual channel connection is set up between end users, variable rate, full duplex VCC also used for control Information field is carried transparently through the network, with minimal error control

So far, ATM has been implemented in :

PC, workstation, and server network interface cards

Switched-Ethernet and token-ring workgroup hubs ATM enterprise network switches ATM multiplexers ATM-edge switches ATM-backbone switches

72

Main features of ATM Service is connection oriented, with data transferred over a VC A cell-switched network (architecture). Fixed-size cell (53-Bytes) Uses Asynchronous time-division multiplexing (Asynchronous TDM) The Quantity of Service (QofS) enable carriers to transmit voice, data, and video. ATM is independent of the transmission medium. ATM cells can be sent on a wire or fiber, and can also be packaged inside the payload of other carrier system.
73

Advantage: Transmitted with predictability and uniformity. Easy to be multiplexed with other cells, and routed through the cell network. With high speed of the links, small and fixed-size cells seem to arrive their respective destinations in an approximation of continuous stream, despite interleaving. E.g. phone call. Simpler buffer hardware, avoiding memory fragmentation problem Simpler cells scheduling: - Easier to allocate different bandwidths and delays to different VCs. - Easier to implement priority - Fixed sized can be switched in parallel in synchronous fashion. Its suitable for time-critical information such as voice or video Quicker recovery in case of circuit failure.

74

Disadvantage: Processing overhead as messages are segmented into cells Segmentation mismatch, as the last cell in a fragmented message may not be fully used. This effect will decrease as the message length increases.

75

 The variety of packet sizes makes traffic unpredictable A cell network uses the cell as the basic unit of data exchange
A cell is defined as a small, fixed sized block of information Cells are interleaved so that non suffers a long delay A cell network can handle real-time transmissions Network operation is more efficient and cheaper

 UNI: user-to-network interface NNI: network-to-network interface

 Connection between two endpoints is accomplished through

Transmission path (TP) Virtual path (VP) Virtual circuit (VC)

A virtual connection is defined by a pair of numbers: VPI and VCI

ATM Layers

84

ATM Technology Reference Model

Control responsible for generating and managing signaling request (connection management). User deals with data transport, flow control, error correction, and other user functions. Layer Management : manages layer-specific functions (detection of failures and protocol problems) Plane Management: 85 manages and coordinates functions related to the complete system.

ATM Technology Reference Model

Physical Medium-Dependent (PMD) having two functions: Synchronizes transmission and reception by sending and receiving a continuous flow of bits with associated timing info. Specifies the physical media for the physical medium used, including connector type and cable.
86

ATM Technology Reference Model

Transmission Convergence (TC) having four functions: Cell delineation, generating cell boundaries. Header error control (HEC) sequence generation and verification Cell-rate decoupling, maintaining synchronization and inserting or suppressing idle ATM cells to rate of valid ATM cells to the payload capacity of transmission system. Transmission frame adaptation, packaging cells into frame acceptable to the particular physical layer implementation.
87

ATM Technology Reference Model

ATM Layer Provides

Defining cells layout Defining header Routing Est and release VC. Switching Multiplexing Congestion control.

0
88

ATM Technology Reference Model

90

ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)

Enables ATM to accept any type of payload, both data frames and streams of bits Fragments data from upper-layer into 48-byte data units for the ATM cells Reassembles Cells

Convergence sub layer (CS): Before the payload is segmented CS prepares data to ensure their integrity, providing standard interface. Segmentation and Reassembly (SAR): Segments the payload into 48-byte cells, and at the destination, reassemble them to recreate the original payload.

 ATM defines four versions of the AAL: AAL1: Support Constant-bit-rate data (CBR) from upper layer; video and voice. AAL2: Used for low-bit-rate and short-frame traffic such as audio (compressed or uncompressed), video, or fax. AAL2 allows the multiplexing of short frames into one cell. AAL3/4: support connection-oriented and connectionless data services AAL5: SEAL (Simple and Efficient Adaptation Layer) No sequencing and error control mechanisms Assumes that all cells belonging to a single message travel sequentially and that control functions are included in the layers of the sending application.

 Frame relay uses variable length frames ATM fixed length cells ATM has higher overhead, but faster speed and traffic management (better suited for video and voice)

 SONET is a transport mechanism, transporting data over fiber. Can act as a transport carrier for ATM (or FDDI, or ISDN, etc.) ATM is a technology and protocol designed to use SONET as its carrier service

 Replace network (e.g., LAN segment) with ATM network ATM addresses, IP addresses

app transport IP Eth phy

IP AAL Eth ATM phy phy ATM phy

ATM phy

app transport IP AAL ATM phy

 at Source Host:
IP layer maps between IP, ATM dest address (using ARP) passes datagram to AAL5 AAL5 encapsulates data, segments cells, passes to ATM layer

ATM network: moves cell along VC to destination at Destination Host:

AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagram if CRC OK, datagram is passed to IP

 IP datagrams into ATM AAL5 PDUs from IP addresses to ATM addresses just like IP addresses to 802.3 MAC addresses! Ethernet LANs

ATM network

 Minimal error and flow control

Reduces overhead of processing ATM cells Reduces number of required overhead bits

Fixed size simplified processing at each ATM node (can be switched more efficiently more efficient use of router) Small cells reduce queuing delay Minimal addressing info on each cell Efficient traffic management

 ATM is mainly a wide-area network (WAN ATM); however, the technology can be adapted to localarea networks (ATM LANs). The high data rate of the technology has attracted the attention of designers who are looking for greater and greater speeds in LANs.

Connectionless versus connection-oriented Physical addresses versus virtual-circuit identifiers Multicasting and broadcasting delivery Interoperability

Client/Server model in a LANE

LANE Configuration Server (LECS), LANE Server (LES), LANE Client (LEC) Broadcast/Unknown Server (BUS)

 Anticipating user demand for end-to-end digital services the worlds telephone companies agreed in 1984 under CC I TT to build a new, fully digital, circuit -switched telephone system. This system was called I S DN ( Integrated Services Digital Net work) and its primary goal was to integrate the voice and non-voice services .

ISDN incorporates all communication connections in a home or building into a single interface
With ISDN all customer services will become digital rather than analog.

 Buttons for instant call set up t o arbitrary telephones anywhere in the world. Displaying the callers telephone number, name and address while ringing. Connecting the telephone to a computer enabling the caller s database record to be displayed on the screen as the call comes in. Call forwarding. Conference calls worldwide. On line medical, burglar, and smoke alarms giving the address to speed up response.

 A Digital bit pipe between the customer and the carrier through which bits flow in both directions. The digital bit pipe can support multiple independent channels by time division multiplexing of the bit stream. Two principal standards for the bit pipe have been developed:
A low bandwidth standard for home use. A higher bandwidth standard for business use that support s multiple channels identical to the home use channels (multiple bit- pipes ).

 U = connection between t he I S DN exchange and NT1 T = connector on NT1 to the customer , S = interface between the I S DN PBX and the ISDN terminal, R = the connection between the terminal adapter and non-I S DN terminal.

 The ISDN bit pipe supports multiple channels interleaved by time division multiplexing. Several channel types have been standardized:
A - 4 kHz analog telephone channel B - 64 kbps digital PCM channel for voice or data C - 8 or 16 kbps digital channel for out -of -band signalling D - 16 kbps digital channel for out -of -band signalling E - 64 kbps digital channel for internal I S DN signalling H - 384, 1536, or 1920 kbps digital channel.

 It is not allowed to make arbitrary combination of channels on the digital pipe. Three combinations have been standardized so far:
Basic rate: 2B + 1D. I t should be viewed as a replacement f or P OTS ( Plain Old Telephone Service) . Each of the 64 kbps B channels can handle a single PCM voice channel with 8 bits samples made 8000 times per second. D channel is for signaling ( i.e. , t o inform t he local I S DN exchange of the address of the destination) . The separate channel for signaling results in a significantly faster set up time. N-ISDN Primary rate: 23B + 1D ( US and Japan) or 30B + 1D (Europe) . It is intended for use at the T reference point for businesses with a PBX. Hybrid: 1A + 1C

Basic Service:
Management rate: 192 kbps Standard throughput: 144 kbps Composition: B + B + D channels, + Synch & framing
Basic

Information:
Voice, Data

B
D

Signaling:
Overhead or telemetry, etc.

B B Primary
B D

PCM voice channels

Signaling

 Basic Rate Interface (BRI): Used for home and small office connectivity. BRI services include two B channels and a single D channel. A B channel offers 64 Kbps and carries user data. A BRI D channel operates at 16 Kbps and carries control and signaling information. Through these two channels, a home connection can reach 128 Kbps of data throughput.

 Primary Rate Interface (PRI): Used for WANs and runs across leased lines. The PRI service is composed of 23 B channels at 64 Kbps each for user data, along with a single D channel, also operating at 64 Kbps to handle control information. Overall, the PRI service provides a throughput rate of 1.544 Mbps.

 A computer with an ISDN line is able to connect to any other computer that also uses ISDN simply by dialing its ISDN number. Terminal adapter (TA): Also called an ISDN modem, this is either an internal or external adapter to connect equipment to an ISDN line.

 Digital
reliable connection 128 kb/s (160 kb/s) for BRI 1920 kb/s (2048 kb/s) for PRI 2 seconds adding new channels to the bundle of channels phone, fax, PC, videoconferencing system, router, terminal adapter,.. each with its own sub-address

Speed

Fast call setup

Bandwidth on Demand

Multiple devices

 N-ISDN was an attempt to replace the analog telephone system with a digital one. N-ISDN basic rate is too low so for home as for business today. N-ISDN may be partly saved, but by an unexpected application: Internet access . Various companies now sell ISDN adapters that combine the 2B+D channels into a single 144 kbps digital channel. Many Internet providers also support these adapters . So the people can access Internet over a 144 kbps digital link, instead of a 28.8 kbps

 When CCITT found that the N-ISDN was not going to solve the actual communication problems , it tried to think of a new service. The result was broadband ISDN ( B-ISDN) , basically a digital virtual circuit for moving fixed-sized packets (cells ) at 155 Mbps. Broadband ISDN is based on ATM technology that is fundamentally a packet -switching technology.