mechanics

Mechanics
of discrete
bodies
Mechanics of
rigid bodies
Statistical
Mechanics (for
large number of
small particles)
Continuum
Mechanics
Fluid
Mechanics
Solid
Mechanics
Time
independent
Elasticity
(reversible)
Linear
elasticity
Nonlinear
elasticity
Material
non-linearity
Geometric non-
linearity
(large
deformation)
Large strain
theories
Plasticity
(irreversible)
Time
dependent
Viscoelasticity Viscoplasticity
Continuum Mechanics
References
Continuum Mechanics for Engineering by G. Thomas Mase and George E. Mase.
Advance Solid Mechanics by P.R. Lancaster and D. Mitchell.
Advance Strength and Applied Elasticity by A.C. Ugural and S.K. Fenster.
1.Definitions
Mechanics: The study of the motion of matter and the forces that cause such motion.
Based on concepts of time, space, force, energy, and matter.
Applications to point mass, solid bodies familiar from introductory physics.
Continuum Mechanics: Mechanics of parts of bodies.
Continuum: define values of fields (e.g., density) as functions of position, i.e., at points.

Example: density ,

V
i
: Sequence of volumes converging on (p).
M
i
: Mass enclosed by V
i


n
n
V
V
M
p
n
0
lim ) (

=
P
V
3

V
1

V
2

Continuity: Completely fills space (no pores or void) and has properties describable by
continuous functions.
Homogeneity: Identical properties at all points (scale dependent).
Isotropy: Properties same in all directions.
2. External Forces: There are two types of forces:
a) Surface forces: Forces distributed over the surface of the body. (atmospheric
pressure, hydraulic pressure)

b) Body Forces: Forces distributed over the volume of the body. (gravitational
forces, centrifugal forces, inertia forces)

Note: A body responds to the application of external forces by
deforming and by developing internal forces.
Newtons 2
nd
low: F=ma, or F-ma=0
For this course, usually a=0 the governing equation is F=0.

Applies not just to particles, entire bodies, but to regions with in bodies.

Free-body diagram: cut open body (thought experiment), examine forces of
interaction between surfaces.
Elasticity: The material returns to its original (unloaded) shape upon the
removal of applied forces.
stress
strain
loading
unloading
Linear elastic material
stress
strain
loading
unloading
Nonlinear elastic material
The graphs follow the same line whether loading or unloading
3. Stresses (Tractions)
Stress is a measure of the internal forces per unit area within a body.
x
z
y
o
S
1

S
2

x
z
y
o
P
AF
n

AF
s1

AF
s2

AA
AF is the force acting on an element of area AA. n, s
1
, s
2
constitute a
set of orthogonal axes, origin placed at the point P, with n normal and
s
1
, s
2
tangent to AA.
Decomposition of AF into components parallel to . n, s
1
, and s
2
then
the normal stress o
n
and the shear stresses are given by:
A
F
A
F
A
F
s
A
s
s
A
s
n
A
n
A
A
=
A
A
=
A
A
=
A
A
A
2
0
2
1
0
1
0
lim
lim
lim
t
t
o
A set of stresses on an infinite number of planes passing through a
point forms the state of the stress at point.

4. Tensors

Most physical quantities that are important in continuum mechanics like temperature,
force, and stress can be represented by a tensor. Temperature can be specified by stating
a single numerical value called a scalar and is called a zeroth-order tensor. A force,
however, must be specified by stating both a magnitude and direction. It is an example
of a first-order tensor. Specifying a stress is even more complicated and requires stating
a magnitude and two directionsthe direction of a force vector and the direction of the
normal vector to the plane on which the force acts. Stresses are represented by second-
order tensors.
4.1. Stress Tensor

Representing a force in three dimensions requires three numbers, each referenced to a
coordinate axis. Representing the state of stress in three dimensions requires nine
numbers, each referenced to a coordinate axis and a plane perpendicular to the
coordinate axes.
To determining traction vectors on arbitrary surfaces.
Consider two surfaces S
1

and S
2

at point Q.
Tractions at a point depend on the orientation of the surface
How to determine T, given n
x
y
z
o
xx

t
xy

t
xz

In vector notation, the tractions on the faces of the cube are written:

xz xy xx x
T t t o , , =
yz yy yx y
T t o t , , =
zz zy zx z
T o t t , , =
t
zy

o
zz

o
yy

t
yz

t
yx

t
zx

For special cases n along axes

In matrix notation, the tractions are written:
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
zz zy zx
yz yy yx
xz xy xx
z
y
x
T
T
T
o t t
t o t
t t o
This matrix is generally referred to as the stress tensor. Its the complete
representation of stress at a point
T
T
n

T
s

T
x

T
y

T
z

o
yy

t
yx

t
yz

o
zz

t
zy

t
zx

o
xx

t
xz

t
xy

p
o
y
z
A
B
C
x
4.2. The Cauchy Tetrahedron and Traction on Arbitrary Planes

Often, it is important to determine the state of stress on an
arbitrarily oriented plane.
Stress acting on
plane ABC
Considering op to be normal to ABC, its line of orientation with
respect to the x-y-z coordinate system is defined by the three
direction cosines shown below
o
A
x
p
o
l
oA
op
= = o cos
|
B
y
p
o
m
oB
op
= = | cos

C
z
p
o
n
oC
op
= = cos
Let the total stress (traction) acting on ABC is T, this would produce
stress component T
x
, T
y
, T
z
as shown in the above figure.
Where

(1)

2 2 2 2
z y x
T T T T + + =
If stress components perpendicular and parallel to ABC plane are of
greater concern, we find

(2)

Now, taking a force balance in the x-direction EF
x
=0 , gives

(3a)

And from EF
y
=0 and EF
z
=0 , we get

(3b)


(3c)

Vector analysis gives,

(4)


(5)
2 2 2
s n
T T T + =
zx yx xx x
n m l T t t o + + =
zy yy xy y
n m l T t o t + + =
zz yz xz z
n m l T o t t + + =
z y x n
nT mT lT T + + =
( )
2 2 2 2
n z y x s
T T T T T + + =
Also T
n
can be determined from the direction cosines and the
known stresses as follows:
( )
zx yz yx zz yy xx n
nl mn lm n m l T t t t o o o + + + + + = 2
2 2 2
In essence, no shear component acts on ABC and the direction
cosines defining the line from the origin, o, that is now normal to
ABC, however l, m, and n can still be used with this in mind:
nT T mT T lT T
z y x
= = = , ,
The above relationships, it substituted into eq.(3), produce the
following
( )
( )
( ) 0
0
0
= + +
= + +
= + +
T n m l
n T m l
n m T l
xx yz xz
zy yy xy
zx yx xx
o t t
t o t
t t o
(6)
These three homogeneous equations gives real roots other than
zero only, if the determinant is zero. Setting the determinant to
zero and expanding gives a cubic equation chose three roots are
the principal stresses (i.e. the stresses on plane of zero shear
stress).

Denoting the stress T as T
p
gives:
0
3 2
2
1
3
= I T I T I T
p p p
(7)
Where I
1
, I
2
, and I
3
are called the Invariants, and they given by
( )
zz yy xx
I o o o + + =
1
(9a)
( )
xx zz zz yy yy xx zx yz xy
I o o o o o o t t t + + =
2 2 2
2
(9b)
( )
2 2 2
3
2
xy zz zx yy yz xx zx yz xy zz yy xx
I t o t o t o t t t o o o + = (9c)
4.3. Different Notations

1. A general equation for explicit expressions is given by:

=
=
3
1 j
j ji i
n T o
2. Summation notation is a way of writing summations without the
summation sign . To use it, simply drop the and sum over repeated
indices. The equation in summation notation is given by:



3. The equation in matrix form is given by:
j ji i
n T o =
(
(
(

|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
3
2
1
33 23 13
32 22 12
31 21 11
3
2
1
n
n
n
T
T
T
o o o
o o o
o o o
4.4. Feature of the Stress Tensor

The stress tensor is a symmetric tensor, meaning that
ij
=
ji
. As
a result, the entire tensor may be specified with only six numbers
instead of nine.

x
y
dx
dy 12
o t or
xy
21
o t or
yx
Consider the moment M acting on an element with sides dx and dy





A similar argument shows
Shears are always conjugate.
yx xy
yx xy z
dy
dx
dx
dy M
t t
t t
=
= = 0
2
2
2
2
zx xz zy yz
t t t t = = ;
Example (1): An applied stress state is described by
(
(
(

=
10 5 8
5 15 3
8 3 20
ij
o
(Note: all stresses are indicated as positive)
Determine the magnitude of the total state of stress , T, and its
normal component, T
n
, acting on plane whose direction cosines
are given by (l=0.707, m=0.643, and n=0.296).
Example (2): A given stress state is expressed as
(
(
(

=
5 1 3
1 6 2
3 2 4
ij
o
The unit of each stress are in MPa and all stresses are denoted as
positive. Find the magnitudes of the principle stresses and the
direction cosines defining the line of action the largest principle
stress with respect to the original x-y-z coordinate system.
4.5. Quantities in Different Coordinate Systems
To provide a systematic approach to the transformation of stress
from one coordinate system to another. Consider the following
situation, where forces F
x
, F
y
, and F
z
act along the x, y, z
reference axes.
z x'
u
x x'
u
x
y
z
F
x
F
y
F
z
o
x
y
z
F
x
F
y
F
z
o
Transformation of forces from one coordinate system to another
Now, assume y is the same as y such that the new x and z axes
are in the same plane as x and z. the force component F
x
is
composed of the projections of F
x
and F
z
on the x axis, thus.
z x z x x x x
F F F
' ' '
+ = u u cos cos
then n and l Since
z x x x
, cos cos , = =
' '
u u
z x x
F n F l F + =
'
In the general situation, the force F
y
would also contribute to F
x
, as
follow:
z y x x
F n F m F l F + + =
'
(10)
Similar relationships could be developed for F
y
and F
z
using the
proper set of direction cosines for each transformation.
ij ij j ij i
l z y x i z y x j F l F u cos , , , , , , , =
' ' '
= = E =
For the transformation of matrix quantities such as stress, first
consider the following situation, where the uniaxial tensile stress
o
yy
is imposed.
y
x
z
x
y
A
y
yy
o
yy
o
x
x
y
A
y
yy
o
y
A
y
y y ' '
o
y y'
u
x
Uniaxial stress transformation to an x , y , z system
The force in the y-direction is

Thus is the component of F
y
acting along

the y-axis.

The area A
y
which is normal to y is :





Therefore,
y yy y
A F o =
y y y y
F F
' '
= u cos
y y y y
A A
' '
= u cos
y y yy y y
y y y
y y y
y
y
y y
A
F
A
F
' ' '
'
'
'
'
' '
=
= =
u o o
u
u
o
2
cos
cos
cos
For the fully generalised case, this type of transformation is expressed as:

=
mn jn im ij
l l o o
With m, n iterated over x, y, z and i, j iterated over x, y, z.

Thus, the complete expression for o
xx
becomes:
xz z x x x zy y x z x yx x x y x
zx x x z x yz z x y x xy y x x x
zz z x z x yy y x y x xx x x x x x x
l l l l l l
l l l l l l
l l l l l l
o o o
o o o
o o o o
' ' ' ' ' '
' ' ' ' ' '
' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
+ + +
+ + +
+ + =
. , , etc Where
zx zx yz yz xy xy
t o t o t o = = =
(11)
Rearrange the terms, gives
( )
zx x x z x yz z x y x xy y x x x z z x y y x x x x x
l l l l l l l l l t t t o o o o
' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
+ + + + + = 2
2 2 2
Knowing that , we get
n l m l l l
z x y x x x
= = =
' ' '
, ,
( )
zx yz xy z y x x
n l n m m l n m l t t t o o o o + + + + + =
'
2
2 2 2
(12)
Similarly from eq.(11) by appropriate interchange of subscripts, equivalent

expressions for , etc.
y x z y ' ' ' '
t o o , ,
dz
y
o
4.6. Equilibrium Equations (Naviers Equation)
y
x
z
Consider a small parallelepiped with sides of lengths dx, dy, and dz.
x
o
z
o
X
Z
Y
dx
dy
dy
y
y
y
c
c
+
o
o
dy
y
yx
yx
c
c
+
t
t
dy
y
yz
yz
c
c
+
t
t
dx
x
x
x
c
c
+
o
o
dx
x
xy
xy
c
c
+
t
t
dx
x
xz
xz
c
c
+
t
t
dz
z
z
z
c
c
+
o
o
dz
z
zx
zx
c
c
+
t
t
dz
z
zy
zy
c
c
+
t
t
Consider the equilibrium of forces in the x-direction
0 . . . .
. . . . . . . .
=
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+ +
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+ +

|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+ +
dx dy dz
z
dx dy dz dx dy
y
dx dz dz dy dx
x
dz dy dz dy dx X
zx
zx zx
yx
yx
yx
x
x x
t
t t
t
t
t
o
o o
Where X is the x component of the body forces per unit volume.

Canceling (dx.dy.dz)
Similarly
0 = +
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
X
z y x
xz
xy
x
t
t
o
(13)
0 = +
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
Y
z y x
yz y yx
t o t
(14)
Here Y and Z are the y and z components of the body forces per unit volume.

Equations 13 to 15 are Naviers equations of equilibrium for an elastic solid.
0 = +
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
Z
z y x
z
zy
zx
o
t
t
(15)