Information input (binary data)

Optical Transmitter

Coder

Modulator

OE source

Optical Fiber

OE source

Demodulator

Decoder

Information output (binary data)

Optical Receiver

5.1.1 Explain system design with aid of diagram

A typical simplex point to point digital fiber optic link. The information input is binary data. A coder in the optical transmitter organizes the 1s and 0s and the modulator acts on this data by producing a current that turns the OE source (LED or ILD) on and off. The resulting pulses of light containing the information are transmitted through the optical fiber. At the receiver end, the OE detector converts the pulses of light into pulses of current. A demodulator decoder combination extracts the information from the electrical pulses.

To fulfill these requirements the designer has choice of the following components and their associated characteristics for: 1. System architecture : Point-to-point link 2. Types of fiber optics 3. Coding technology 4. Multi mode LED, Single mode LASER 5. Operational wavelength 6. Cable losses 7. Insertion losses

Point to point links: The simplest transmission link is a point to point line that has a transmitter on one end and a receiver on the other.

Information source

Optical transmitter

Optical fiber

Optical receiver

user

Simplex point-to-point link

The following key system requirements are needed in analyzing a link: 1. The desired transmission distance 2. The data rate or channel bandwidth 3. The bit error rate (BER)

To fulfill these requirements the designer has a choice of the following components and their associated characteristic: 1. Multimode or single mode optical fiber
Core size Core refractive index profile Bandwidth or dispersion Attenuation Numerical aperture or mode field diameter.

2. LED or laser diode optical source

Emission wavelength Spectral line width Output power Effective radiating area Emission pattern Number of emitting modes

3. Pin or avalanche photodiode

Responsivity Operating wavelength Speed sensitivity

FIBER OPTIC TYPES

MULTIMODE

SINGLE MODE

MULTIMODE
i. Step Index Multimode was the first fiber design. It has higher attenuation and is too slow for many uses, due to the dispersion caused by the different path lengths of the various modes travelling in the core.

ii

Graded Index Multimode fiber uses variations in the composition of the glass in the core to compensate for the different path lengths of the modes. It offers hundreds of times more bandwidth than step index fiber - up to about 2 gigahertz.

Two types are in use, 50/125 and 62.5/125, where the numbers represent the core/cladding diameter in microns 62.5/125 fiber has a 62.5 micron core and a 125 micron cladding. It's now called OM1 standard fiber. 50/125 fiber has a 50 micron core and a125 micron cladding and called OM2 standard. Transmit data using LED. Wavelength range = 850 to 1300 nm.

SINGLEMODE
Single mode fiber shrinks the core down so small that the light can only travel in one ray. This increases the bandwidth to almost infinity. Single mode fiber has a core diameter of 8-10 microns, specified as "mode field diameter," the effective size of the core, and a cladding diameter of 125 microns.

With its greater informationcarrying capacity, singlemode fiber typically is used for : Longer distance and higher bandwidth applications.

Transmit

data using Laser Light5. Wave length range = 1300 to 1550 nm

COMPARISON OF CORE/CLADDING SIZES

RELATIVE SIZES OF ALL FIBERS

Plastic Optical Fiber
(POF) is large core ( about 1mm) fiber, usually step index, that is used for short, low speed networks.
PCS/HCS (plastic or hard clad silica, plastic cladding on a glass core) has a smaller glass core (around 200 microns) and a thin

plastic cladding.

In designing an optical fiber link an important consideration is the format of the transmitted optical signal. Signal encoding uses a set of rules for arranging the signal symbols in a particular pattern. This process is called channel or line coding. The purpose of this section is to examine the various types of line codes that are well suited for digital transmission on an optical fiber link

The discussion here is limited to binary codes, because they are most advantageous codes for optical systems. One of the principle functions of a line code is to introduce redundancy into the data stream for the purpose of minimizing errors that result from channel interference effects. Depending on the amount of redundancy introduced, any degree of error free transmission of digital data can be achieved, provided that the data rate that includes this redundancy is less than the channel capacity. This is the result of the well known Shannon channel-coding theory.

The three basic types of two level binary line codes that can be used for optical fiber transmission links are the non-return-tozero (NRZ) format, the return-to-zero (RZ) format, and the phase-encoded (PE) format. In NRZ codes a transmitted data bit occupies a full bit period. For RZ formats the pulse width is less than a full bit period. In the PE format both full width and half width data bits are present.

Multilevel binary (MLB) signaling is also possible, but it is used much less frequently than the popular NRZ and RZ codes.

The system parameters involved in deciding between the use of an LED and a laser diode are signal dispersion, data rate, transmission distance and cost. Light-emitting diodes (LED) tend to be used with multimode fibers. The special width of the laser output is much narrower than that of an LED. Since laser diodes typically couple from 10 to 15 dB more optical power into a fiber than an LED, greater repeater less transmission distances are possible with a laser.

This advantage and the lower dispersion capability of the laser diodes may be offset by cost constraints. Not only is a laser diode itself more expensive than an LED but also the laser transmitter circuitry is much more complex, since the lasing threshold has to be dynamically controlled as a function of temperature and device aging.

Single mode fiber has a core diameter of 8 to 9 microns, which only allows one light path or mode Images from arcelect.com (Link Ch 2a) Usually 1300 nm single mode fiber is good enough Cheaper than 1550 nm or two-wavelength systems

Multimode fiber has a core diameter of 50 or 62.5 microns (sometimes even larger) Allows several light paths or modes This causes modal dispersion some modes take longer to pass through the fiber than others because they travel a longer distance

The index of refraction gradually changes across the core Modes that travel further also move faster This reduces modal dispersion so the bandwidth is greatly increased

Characteristic : LED and LASER

CHARACTERISTIC Output power
Speed Output pattern (NA) Spectral width Single mode compatibility Ease of use

LED Lower
Slower Higher Wider No Easier

LASER Higher
Faster Lower Narrower Yes Harder

Lifetime
Cost

Longer
Lower

Long
Higher

Fiber Types and Typical Specifications

Core/Cladding Attenuation Bandwidth Applications/Notes

Multimode Graded-Index
@850/1300 nm 50/125 microns 50/125 microns 62.5/125 microns 100/140 microns 3/1 dB/km 3/1 dB/km 3/1 dB/km 3/1 dB/km @850/1300 nm 500/500 MHz-km 2000/500 MHz-km 160/500 MHz-km 150/300 MHz-km Laser-rated for GbE LANs

Optimized for 850 nm VCSELs

Most common LAN fiber Obsolete

Single Mode
@1310/1550 nm 8-9/125 microns 0.4/0.25 dB/km HIGH! ~100 Terahertz Telco/CATV/long high speed LANs

Multimode Step-Index
@850 nm
200/240 microns 4-6 dB/km

@850 nm
50 MHz-km Slow LANs & links

POF (plastic optical fiber)

@ 650 nm 1 mm ~ 1 dB/m @ 650 nm ~5 MHz-km Short Links & Cars

In carrying out a link power budget, firstly decide at which wavelength to transmit and then choose components that operate in this region. If the distance over which the data are to be transmitted is not too far, we may decide to operate in the 800 to 900 nm region. On the other hand, if the transmission distance is relatively long, we may want to take advantage of the lower attenuation and dispersion that occurs at wavelengths around 1300 or 1550 nm.

For higher values ( up to 2500Mb/s).km, a laser must be used at these wavelengths. At wavelengths around 1.3um, where signal dispersion is very low, bit rate distance products of at least 1500 Mb/s.km achievable with LEDs. For InGaAsP lasers, this figure is in excess of 25 Gb/s.km at 1.3 um. A single mode fiber can be provide the ultimate bit rate distance product, with values of over 500Gb/s.km having been demonstrated at 1550nm.

Optical Loss divided into two: Intrinsic Loss

Problems the splicer cannot fix Core diameter mismatch Concentricity of fiber core or connector ferrules Core ellipticity Numerical Aperture mismatch

Extrinsic Loss Insertion Loss

Problems the person doing the splicing can avoid Misalignment Bad cleaves Air gaps Contamination: Dirt, dust, oil, etc. Reflectance

Acceptable Losses
Fiber & Joint SM splice SM connector pair Loss (max) Reflectance (min)

0.15 dB 1 dB 0.25 dB 0.75 dB

50 dB 30 dB 50 dB 25 dB

MM splice
MM connector pair

Power

Link Budget Rise Time Budget Block Diagram Calculation

Transmitter : Operating wavelength (), Line width (), Rise time, Bit-rate, Line format, Power level Fiber : SMF/MMF, Fiber type SMF28, DSF, etc, Cable loss, Spool length Rx :

PSEN, PSAT, Rise time

Connection: No. of splice, Splice loss No. of connectors, Connector Loss

In Line Devices: Splitter, Filter, Attenuator, Amplifier Insertion loss, Gain

The Main Question In Digital System - Data Rate - Bit Error Rate In Analog System - Bandwidth - Signal to Noise Ratios

The Main Problems Attenuation and Loss Dispersion

System Factor Type of Fiber Operating Wavelength

Transmitter Power Source Type Receiver Sensitivity and Overload Characteristics Detector Type PIN Diode, APD or IDP

Considerations Single-mode or Multimode 780, 850, 1310 and 1550 nm typical Typically expressed in dBm LED or Laser Typically expressed in dBm

System Factor Modulation Code Bit Error Rate (BER) (Digital Systems Only) Signal to Noise Ratio Number of Connectors Number of Splices Loss is splices Environmental Requirements Mechanical Requirements

Considerations AM, FM, PCM or Digital 10-9 ,10-12 Typical Specified in decibels (dB) Loss increases with the number of connectors Loss increases with the number of Humidity, Temperature, Exposure to sunlight Flammability, Indoor/Outdoor Application

Three types of budgets:

1) 2) 3)

Power Budget Bandwidth or Rise Time Budget ?

The optical power budget in a fiber-optic communication link is the allocation of available optical power (launched into a given fiber by a given source) among various loss-producing mechanisms such as launch coupling loss, fiber attenuation, splice losses, and connector losses, in order to ensure that adequate signal strength (optical power) is available at the receiver. The optical power budget is usually specified or expressed in decibels (dB). It is defined as the difference between the power

launched into the fiber and the sensitivity (minimum amount of power required) of the receiver connected through the fiber optic cable. Power Link Budget = Transmitter Power (dBm) Receiver Sensitivity (dBm)

Example 1
Transmitter power = -20 dBm (10 W) Receiver Sensitivity = -30 dBm (1 W) Link Power Budget = (-20 dBm) - (-30 dBm) = 10 dB * Notice the "m" dropped off.

The Link Power budget can also be defined as the power ratio of the transmitter versus the receiver sensitivity. This ratio can be designed in the standard decibel (dB) equation.
Power Link Budget (dB) = 10 log10 [ Receiver Sensitivity / Transmitter Power ]

Sample Diagram 1
Good

Weak

TX

OA
Amplifier

OA

RX

Fiber

Connector/splice
Medium and Devices

Sample Diagram 2

Illustrating of power budget for 2 km fiber optic link with 5 connections (2 connectors at each end & 3 connections at patch panel in the link) & 1 splice in the middle

PB : PRX > PMIN PRX = Received Power PMIN = Minimum Power at a certain BER PRX = PTX Total Losses + Total Gain - PMARGIN PTX = Transmitted Power
PMARGIN 6 dB (given)
* SAFETY MARGIN The safety margin is the difference between the power link budget and the loss budget. In most applications the safety margin should be at least 3 dB and greater if possible. This insures room for breakage in the link that needs to be spliced for future operations and aging of the fiber optic transmitter and fiber optic cable.

Loss,L = LIL + Lfiber + Lconn. + Lnon-linear LIL = Insertion Loss Lfiber = Fiber Loss Lconn.= Connector Loss Lnon-linear= Non-linear Loss Gain,G = Gainamp + Gnon-linear

Gainamp = Amplifier Gain Gnon-linear = Non-linear Gain

IS THIS SYSTEM GOOD?

185 km

Splice

Connector

PTx = 0 dBm

PSEN = -28 dBm Attenuation Coefficient, = 0.25 dB/km

Number of Splice = 46 Splice Loss = 0.1 dB Connector Loss = 0.2 dB PMargin = 6 dB

Fiber Loss Splice Loss Connector Loss

= 0.25 dB/km X 185 km = 46.3 dB = 0.1 dB X 46 = 4.6 dB = 0.2 dB X 2 = 0.4 dB = 51.3 dB

Total Losses = 46.3 + 4.6 + 0.4

PMargin = 6 dB PRX = PTX Total Losses PMargin = 0 51.3 6 PRX = -57.3 dB

Power Budget, PRX < PSEN !!

Server A 500 m Using 850nm PTx = -15 dBm

Server B

PSEN = -25 dBm

Attenuation Coefficient, = 4.5 dB/km

Number of Splice = 0 Splice Loss = 0 dB Connector Loss = 0.5 dB PMargin = 2 dB

The rise time, tr of a linear electrical circuit is dened as the

time over which the current builds up from 10 to 90% of its final value when the incident optical power is changed abruptly (step function). tr will be analyzed to perform in order to determine the

bandwidth carrying capability of the system, then it is used to determine the maximum system data rate supported. The transmission data rate of a digital fiber optic communication system is limited by the rise time of the various components, such as amplifiers and LEDs, and the dispersion of the fiber. The cumulative effect of all the components should not limit the bandwidth of the system.

Calculate the total rise time Tx, Fiber, Rx Calculate fiber rise time, TFiber
Tfiber = D x x L D = Dispersion Coefficient = Line width L = Fiber Length

Tx Rise Time, TTX = normally given by manufacturer Rx Rise Time, TRX = normally given by manufacturer

Total Rise time, Tsys:

Tsys=1.1(TTX2+TRX2+Tfiber2)1/
2

TX

OA

OA

RX

= T - T

Medium and Devices

A good rise time factor in fiber optic systems:

i. For a good reception of signal Tsys 0.7 x Pulse Width (PW) PW = 1/BitRate for NRZ = 1/2BitRate for RZ

ii.

Formula for total rise time, TSYS:

TSYS = 1.1

tr RX 2 + trTX 2 + trFIBER 2

trRX 2 = 10ns trTX 2 = 1.75ns trFIBER 2 = 10 ns So calculate the Tsys. TSYS = 1.1 tr RX 2 + trTX 2 + trFIBER 2
= 1.1 10 2 + 1.752 + 102 = 15.675 ns

Determine if rise time budget is good or bad.

Let say, Bit Rate = STM 4 = 622 Mbps Format NRZ Tsys 0.7 x Pulse Width (PW) Pulse width (PW) = 1/(622 x106) = 1.6 ns So, Tsys 0.7 x 1.6 ns 15.7 ns > 1.12 ns Bad Rise Time Budget!!!!

In fiber optic system, given : Bit Rate = STM 16 = 2.5 Gbps Format = NRZ
i. Calculate the rise time, if trRX = 0.01ns, trTX = 0.01ns dan trFiber = 0.0001ns. ii. Determine either rise time budget is good or not.

Fiber rise time, TF =Length x D x Linewidth() = 150 km x 18 x 0.15 nm

= 0.4 ns
Total Rise time, TSYS = 1.1 TLS2 + TPD2 + TF2 = 1.1 0.01 + 0.25 + 0.16

TSYS = 0.77 ns

Let say, Bit Rate = STM 4 = 622 Mbps Format = RZ Tsys < 0.7 x Pulse Width (PW) Pulse Width (PW) = 1/(622x106) = 1.6 ns 0.77 ns < 0.7 x 1.6 ns 0.77 ns < 1.1 ns !!

Good Rise Time Budget!!

In fiber optic system, given : Bit Rate = STM 16 = 2.5 Gbps Format = NRZ i. 0.0001ns. ii. Calculate the rise time, if trRX = 0.01ns, trTX = 0.01ns dan trFiber = Determine if rise time budget is good or not.

Option

Power Budget

Bandwidth Budget

Financial

Source (LED vs. LD)

850nm 1310nm 1550nm

Mediocre Good Very good NA

Bad Good Very good Bad

Cheap Less expensive Expensive Cheap

Modulation Bandwidth

LED

LD

NA
Mediocre Good NA NA

Good
NA NA Bad Good

Expensive
Cheap Expensive Cheap Expensive

Output Power

LED LD

Radiation pattern

LED (farfield pattern) LD (Gaussian beam)

Budget Summary (cont)

B Fiber Attenuation Option MM SM Dispersion MM SM Numerical Aperture (NA) MM SM Core Diameter MM SM
Power Budget Bandwidth Budget Financial

Mediocre

Mediocre

Cheap
Expensive

Good
Mediocre

Good
Mediocre

Cheap
Expensive

Good
Mediocre

Good
Mediocre

Cheap
Expensive

Good
Mediocre

Good
Mediocre

Cheap
Expensive

Good

Good

Budget Summary (cont)

C Receiver (PIN vs. APD)
Option Power Budget Bandwidth Budget Financial

Rise time/ Bandwidth

PIN
APD

Mediocre

Mediocre

Cheap
Expensive

Good
Mediocre

Good
Mediocre

Response wavelength range

PIN APD

Cheap
Expensive

Good
Mediocre

Good
Mediocre

Saturation Level

PIN APD

Cheap
Expensive

Good
Mediocre

Good
Mediocre

Minimum detection level

PIN APD

Cheap
Expensive

Good

Good

Components considerations such as : Light Emitter Type Emitter Wavelength Connector Type Fiber Type Detector Type

The key factors that determine how far one can transmit over fiber are transmitter optical output power, operating wavelength, fiber attenuation, fiber bandwidth and receiver optical sensitivity. The decibel (dB) is a convenient means of comparing two power levels. The optical link loss budget analyzes a link to ensure that sufficient power is available to meet the demands of a given application.

Rise and fall times determine the overall response time and the resulting bandwidth. A sensitivity analysis determines the amount of optical power that must be received for a system to perform properly. Bit errors may be caused by source intensity noise, fiber noise, receiver noise, time jitter and intersymbol interference. The five characteristics of a pulse are rise time, period, fall time, width and amplitude.

UNIT 5.3 MEASUREMENT STANDARDS & TEST PROCEDURES

There are three basic classes of standards: a) Primary standard b) Components testing standard c) System standard

Refer to measuring & characterizing fundamental physical parameters such as :

Attenuation, Bandwidth, Mode-field diameter for single mode fibers and Optical power.

Organization involved in this standard are:

National Institute of Standards and Technology(NIST)-United State. National Physical Laboratory NPL)-United Kingdom. Physikalisch Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB)Germany

Define relevant test for fiber-optic component performance and they establish equipment-calibration procedures. Organization involved in this standard are:

Telecommunication Industries Association(TIA). Electronic Industries Association(EIA). International Telecommunication Union(ITU-T) International Electrotechnical Commission(IEC).

Refer to measurement methods for links and networks. Organization involved in this standard are:

American National Standards Institute(ANSI) Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers(IEEE). International Telecommunication Union(ITUT).

Optical power measurement Optical wavelength measurement Signal measurement

The power meter by itself can be use to measure source power With a source, it can measure the loss of a cable plant, called

insertion loss

Image from lanshack.com

Most power measurements are in the range +10 dBm to -40 dBm
Analog CATV (cable TV) or DWDM (Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing) systems can have power up to +30 dBm (1 watt)

Power meters are calibrated at three standard wavelengths

850 nm, 1300 nm, 1550 nm

Typical measurement uncertainty is 5% (0.2 dB)

Sources/signal are either LED or laser

665 nm for plastic optical fiber 850 nm or 1300 nm for multimode 1310 nm or 1550 nm for singlemode
Image from lanshack.com

Test your system with a source similar to the one that will be actually used to send data

Power meter and source in a single unit

Normally used in pairs Automated, more complex and expensive than the combination of a source and a power meter
Rare in field testing
Image from aflfiber.com

Image from exfo.com

Measure loss Locate breaks, splices, and connectors Produces graphic display of fiber status
Can be stored for documentation and later reference

Cable can be measured from one end

A small amount of light is scattered back to the source from the fiber itself Splices or connector pairs cause a larger reflection of light back to the source

Dead zone

OTDR can give false loss values when coupling different fibers together
Splices can even show more light on the other side gainer This is an illusion caused by increased scattering on the other side Splice loss uncertainty up to 0.8 dB

Full-size
Complex, powerful, expensive

Mini-OTDR
Fewer features

Fault Finder
Simplified, shows distance to a fault

Cable tracer is just a flashlight VFL uses an LED or Laser source to get more light into the fiber
Useful to test a fiber for continuity To check to make sure the correct fiber is connected With bright sources, you can find the break by looking for light shining through the jacket Visible light only goes 3-5 km through fiber

Bends the fiber to detect the light Can be used on live fiber without interrupting service Can detect a special modulated tone sent down a fiber

Measures optical return loss (reflectance) of connectors Inaccurate on installed systems because it includes backscatter and all sources of reflectance

Cable to be Tested

Used to inspect fibers and connectors

Particularly during epoxypolish process

Telephone calls over unused fibers Rarely needed now that we have cellphones

Simulates the loss of a long fiber run Variable attenuators allow testing a network to see how much loss it can withstand Can use a gap, bending, or inserting optical filters

Test cables are needed to connect the cables to be tested to the test instruments Must have correct connectors, be clean, and high-quality (low loss) Use high-quality mating adapters
Ceramic or metal not plastic Singlemode rated are most accurate

Network Type
Telecom Telecom DWDM Data CATV

Wavelength
1330, 1550 1550 665, 790, 850, 1300 1300, 1550

Power Range (dBm)

+3 to -45 +20 to -30 -10 to -30 +10 to -6

Detectors are Silicon, Germanium, or Indium-Gallium-Arsenide semiconductors

NIST is a standards laboratory

Offers power calibration services at 850, 1300, and 1550 nm wavelengths Instruments should be returned to the manufacturer for calibration annually

Absolute power: 5% or 0.2 dB Insertion loss: 0.5 dB or more OTDR: up to several dB Optical return loss: 1 dB or more
Although meters show a reading with hundredths of a decibel, they dont mean anything A 2.13 dB loss might well re-measure as 2.54 dB

Before installation
Test continuity with cable tracer or VFL

Measure attenuation with cutback method

Cut off known length, measure power increase

Most multimode systems use LED sources Singlemode systems use laser sources Test with the source you will really use

High-speed multimode often uses VCSELs (1 Gbps and higher)

BUT Argilent says you should test all Multimode with LEDs

Mode scramblers mix modes to equalize power in all modes

Mode filters remove higher-order modes to reach equilibrium modal distribution

Can be made with a mandrel wrap

Can be made with a section of stepindex fiber

Singlemode fibers shorter than 10 meters may have extra modes

Use a launch cord to avoid that problem

Longer pulses can see further down the cable because they have more light But they have less accuracy finding locations
From link Ch 17a

Dead zone
Nothing can be measured for the first 100 meters or so

Distance Resolution
Two events too close together cannot be resolved Especially with long pulses

Speed of light in fiber

May not be exactly what the OTDR expects, distorting distances

Slack in fiber
OTDR measures length along the fiber, which is usually 1% - 2% longer than the length along the cable

Joining two fibers with different backscatter coefficients will cause:

Too high a loss when measured in one direction Too low a loss in the other direction

For accurate loss measurements, measure from both ends and average the results

Secondary reflection appears at double the real cable length Using index-matching gel will eliminate ghosts

Multimode fibers suffer from modal

dispersion

All fibers suffer from chromatic dispersion

Because different wavelengths travel at different speeds, and no source is completely monochromatic

In very long singlemode networks, polarization mode dispersion also matters

There is a new unit available to test bandwidth in the field, but it is not commonly done yet (link Ch 17 k)
Input

Output

This test gives the typical loss of a connector type

The insertion loss test

FOTP-34 by the TIA

Three options of modal distribution

EMD or steady state
After a mandrel wrap

Fully filled
After a mode scrambler

Any other specified conditions

Used to inspect the ends of polished connectors Helpful to view the connector at an angle while lighting it from the side Only defects over the core really matter

A pair of glass-air interfaces for nonphysical contact connectors without index-matching gel

PC connectors can have a reflectance of 1% or an ORL of 20 dB

Much less with Angled PC connectors 40 to 60 dB

4% reflectance loss of 0.3 dB due to reflectance

Reflectance can be a problem in high bitrate singlemode systems

Test FOTP-171
Measure power through launch cable Then add cable to test
This tests only one connector turn the cable around to test the other end

Uses both a launch and receive cable

Refer to this condition

Test this way

EIA/TIA 568 requires this

It gives highest loss and lowest uncertainty It tests both connectors on the cable to test

Choose cables with low loss

It is not necessary to get connectors and fiber with tighter specifications

Handle the launch cables carefully Inspect them with a microscope Keep them clean
Use splice bushings with metal or ceramic alignment sleeves

Coupling a smaller fiber to a larger one causes only a small loss (0.3 dB or so) Connecting large fiber to small fiber causes a large loss
Both because of diameter and numerical aperture

Can use one-cable reference, or two-cable, or three-cable, but the type of reference must be documented

Usually test multimode at both 850 and 1300 nm with LED sources Singlemode test is usually at 1300 nm only
1550 nm is sometimes required also For long-distance, and to show that WDM can be performed later Also shows microbends 1550 test is much more sensitive to bending loss

Splits light signal from one fiber into two fibers

You can also split one to M, or combine M to 1

Light entering from the left containing two wavelengths is separated into the two fibers on the right Combining the two signals is also possible Requires special equipment and techniques to test
Image from link Ch 17o

Boosts signal without converting it to electricity Complicated to test, require special equipment
Image from link Ch 17p

The diagram shows a single link Most networks will be bidirectional (full duplex) with two links working in opposite directions

The receiver power must be within the operating range

Too little power leads to high bit error rates (wrong data at receiver) Too much power saturates the detector and also leads to high bit error rates
Use an attenuator in this case

Often the two fibers are connected backwards check them with a visual tracer Check receiver power level Check plant loss with double-ended method

OTDR does not see the loss of the end connectors Its power source is not the same as normal LAN power sources OTDR measurements are affected by backscatter coefficient which may not be the same for all the cables in a network

Back reflection can cause networks to fail even though the loss is low Power meter cant measure reflection

Use an OTDR or OCWR Cure it by splicing in low-reflection patch cords to replace high-reflectance connectors Angled PC connectors are designed to minimize reflectance for this reason (not mentioned in textbook)

Once installed, the fiber optics should work for a long time People break the cable by accident

Mark where cables are buried Bury a marker tape above the cable Use orange or yellow jacket cable indoors A broken cable just behind a connector in a patch panel is hard to find

LED in laser transmitter drops in power as it ages Laser sources are feedback-stabilized so they remain constant in power till they fail