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The facts
July 1979
1981
1983 1984
9 April 1984
Sandinista government in Nicaragua Nicaragua supported armed groups in El Salvador USA fund for the Contras USA laid mines in Nicaraguan ports; infringement of Nicaraguan air space; economic measures against Nicaragua Nicaraguas claim at the ICJ
The facts
Arguments Nicaragua: Violations of treaty obligations (supplying military paramilitary actions) Violations of international law (sovereignty, use of force, intervention) Reparations
The facts
Arguments USA:
Nicaragua supported armed groups Cross border military attacks Collective self defence
Controversy: Some scholars say that the Court should first look to state practice and not to opinio juris. And since the Court in this case looked to opinio juris without emphasizing state practice, it got it backwards.
If there is enough evidence of state practice, opinio juris is not always necessary, and usually if it does exist, courts use it only to confirm the existence of state practice as indicative of customary law. But, where there is little evidence of state practice, court will make up for that with greater evidence of opinio juris and vice versa.
How the ICJ Address State Practice and Opinio Juris 2. Self Defence Party Agreement UN Charter Article 51 General Assembly Resolution 2625 (XXV) General Assembly Resolution 3314 (XXIX) Charter of Organisations of American States International Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance 1947
3. Non-intervention
Numerous declarations and resolutions Corfu Channel (Merits) United Kingdom v Albania 1949 ICJ Reports 4
How the ICJ Address State Practice and Opinio Juris 5. State sovereignty
The concept of sovereignty extends to the internal waters and territorial sea of every State and to the airspace above its territory:
Art. 2(1) of the UN Charter; Art. 1 of the Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation (1944); Geneva Convention on the Territorial Sea (1958); UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982). Laying of mines by another State is infringement of the freedom of communications and of maritime commerce.
How the ICJ Address State Practice and Opinio Juris 6. Humanitarian law
A breach of the principles of humanitarian law underlying the specific provisions of Hague Convention (Art. 3 and 4); United States commited violation of Art. 3 of the fourth Geneva Convention; The conflict between Contras forces and those of the Government of Nicaragua is an armed conflict which is "not of an international character"; Obligation on the United States Government, in the terms of Art. 1 of the Geneva Convention is to "respect" the Conventions and even "to ensure respect" for them "in all circumstances" (general principle of humanitarian law)
How did the ICJ address differences in opinion regarding the content of the substantive rule(s)?
The court found in its legal verdict that the US was in breach of its legal obligations under customary international law not to use force against another state, not to intervene in its affairs, not to violate its sovereignty, not to interrupt peaceful maritime commerce, and in breach of its obligations under Article XIX of the Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation between the Parties signed at Managua on 21 January 1956. It said that it was not necessary that the practice in question had to be in absolutely rigorous conformity with the purported customary rule.
How did the ICJ address differences in opinion regarding the content of the substantive rule(s)?
The court continued: In order to deduce the existence of customary rules, the court deems it sufficient that the conduct of states should, in general, be consistent with such rules, and that instances of state conduct inconsistent with a given rule should generally have been treated as breaches of that rule, not as indications of the recognition of a new rule. If a State acts in a way that is incompatible with a recognized rule, but then defends its action by trying to appeal to an exception to that rule, then whether or not the State's conduct is in fact justifiable on that basis, the significance of that attitude is to confirm rather than to weaken the rule.