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Wiley 2010 24
Pats Pizza Place: Pat hires an analyst to determine a standard
time to prepare a large pepperoni and cheese pizza. He takes 10
observations of the 7 elements and calculates the mean time and
the standard deviation per element. He must then calculate the #
of observations to be within 5% of the true mean 95% of the time.
The analyst must calculate the observations for each element to
determine how many additional observations must be taken. The
maximum number of 25 (in this case) for element #7 means that an
additional 15 observations must be made and then the observed
times are revised.
ns observatio 25
0.24
0.03
0.05
1.96
x
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7 =
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A B C D E
Example 11.3 Pat's Pizza Place
Standard Deviation Mean Observed Revised Observed
Work Element (minutes) Time (minutes) Time (minutes) # Observations
1. Get ball of dough 0.010 0.12 0.15 11
2. Flatten dough 0.030 0.25 0.25 23
3. Spin and toss dough 0.040 0.50 0.60 10
4. Place dough on counter 0.005 0.12 0.15 3
5. Pour sauce on formed dough 0.035 0.30 0.30 21
6. Place grated cheese on top 0.025 0.25 0.28 16
7. Place pepperoni on sauce 0.030 0.24 0.28 25
Wiley 2010 25
Other Time Factors Used in
Calculating Standard Time
The normal time (NT) is the mean observed
time multiplied by the performance rating
factor (PRF)
The PRF is a subjective estimate of a workers
pace relative to a normal work pace
The frequency of occurrence (F) is how
often the element must be done each cycle.
Wiley 2010 26
Other Time Factors Used in
Calculating Standard Time
The allowance factor (AF) is the amount of time
allowed for personal, fatigue, and unavoidable delays
Standard Time=normal time x allowance factor,
where:
(NT)(AF) ST
117.6% 1.176
0.15 1
1
PFD 1
1
AF Worked Tme
=
= =
=
Wiley 2010 27
Calculating Normal Time and
Standard Time at Pats Pizza
The standard time for preparing a large, hand-tossed pepperoni
pizza is 2.312 minutes. This means that a worker can prepare 207
pizzas in an 8-hour shift (480 minutes divided by 2.312 minutes)
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A B C D E F
Example 11.4 Calculating Standard Time for a Hand-Tossed Cheese and Pepperoni Pizza
Revised Observed Performance Rating Frequency Normal Time Standard Time
Work Element Time (minutes) Factor (minutes) (minutes)
1. Get ball of dough 0.15 0.90 1 0.135 0.159
2. Flatten dough 0.25 1.00 1 0.250 0.294
3. Spin and toss dough 0.60 0.85 1 0.510 0.600
4. Place dough on counter 0.15 1.10 1 0.165 0.194
5. Pour sauce on formed dough 0.30 1.20 1 0.360 0.423
6. Place grated cheese on top 0.28 1.00 1 0.280 0.329
7. Place pepperoni on sauce 0.28 0.95 1 0.266 0.313
Total Time 1.966 2.312
Wiley 2010 28
Other Time Study Methods
Elemental time data establishes standards based
on previously completed time studies, stored in an
organizations database.
Predetermined time data (e.g. MTM and MTS) is a
published database element time data used for
establishing standard times
Reach, grasp, move, engage, insert, turn, etc.
Work Sampling is a technique for estimating the
proportion of time a worker spends on an activity
Wiley 2010 29
Work Sampling Procedures
1. Identify the worker or machine to be sampled
2. Define the activities to be observed
3. Estimate the sample size based on level of accuracy and
confidence level
4. Develop the random observation schedule. Make
observations over a time period that is representative of
normal work conditions
5. Make you observations and record the data. Check to see
whether the estimated sample size remains valid
6. Estimate the proportion of the time spent on the given
activity
Wiley 2010 30
Work Sampling Example: We are interested in estimating the
proportion of time spent by secretaries arranging and scheduling
travel. We are considering the possibility of bringing an on site
travel agency to free up secretaries from this time consuming task.
We estimate that the proportion might be as high as .50.
Step 1 We need to estimate the number of observations needed to provide
an estimate with 97% confidence (z=2.17), and the resulting estimate will be
within 5% of its true value. We use
Step 2 Based on the first 30 observations the secretary was making travel
reservations 6 times (6 out of 30 observations = 0.2). With this new estimate,
recalculate the sample size needed .
Final Step After making the 302 observations, the secretary was making
reservations 60 times or 19.9%. This estimate can now be used to make the
decision on savings that might result by consolidating this task with an in
house travel agency
( ) ns observatio 470.89 0.5 1 0.5
0.05
2.17
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Wiley 2010 31
Compensation
Compensation is the third part of work system design
Time-based plans (pay based on the number of
hours worked) vs. output-based systems (pay based
on the number of units completed)
Group incentive plans: profit sharing & gain sharing
Plans put part of a workers salary at risk
Does the compensation system undermine teamwork?
Does plan prevent free-riders not doing their fair share?
Does the incentive plan encourage workers to support the
long-term health of the organization?
Wiley 2010 32
Worker Compensation Systems
cont
Group incentive plans reward employees when
company achieves certain performance objectives
Profit sharing a employee bonus pool based on
sharing of companys profits
Gain sharing emphasizes cost reduction rather than
profits
Plans put part of a workers salary at risk
Compensation system may undermine teamwork
Wiley 2010 33
Learning Curves
When the number of times the task is
repeated doubles, the time per task
reduces as shown in the graph
With an 85% learning curve rate, the
2nd time a task is done will take 85%
of the 1st time.
The 4
th
time will take 85% of the 2
nd
If an employee took 12 hours to
complete an initial task, how long will
the 16
th
time take (4
th
doubling)?
T x L
n
= time required to
perform a task the nth time
T = the time required to
perform the task the first
time
L = the rate of learning
n = the number of times the
task has doubled
hours 6.26 (.85) x 12 task 16th for Hours
4
= =
Wiley 2010 34
Work System Design within
OM: How it all fits together
Work system design includes job design, methods
analysis, and work measurement. Manufacturing or
industrial engineers often do these activities. Job design
determines exactly how the product or service will be
done and is linked directly to product and process design.
Based on the type of product (standard or custom) and its
proposed process (mass-producing or producing one at a
time), a company determines the skills set needed by its
employees as well as the necessary equipment.
Method analysis provides a means for evaluating different
processes and materials, thus allowing a company to focus
on continuous improvement. This ties in directly with a
companys total quality management (TQM) focus.
Wiley 2010 35
WSD: How it all fits together
cont
Work measurement techniques allow a company to develop
standards to use as a basis for evaluating the cost and effectiveness
of different methods and materials for building a product or
providing a service. These time standards provide a time estimate to
use as a basis for establishing detailed work schedules and for
determining long-term staffing levels. These time estimates can be
used as a basis for making delivery or completion-time promises to
customers. Standard times are used to develop lead-time estimates,
which are inputs for the MRP (material requirement planning)
system as well as the MPS (master production schedule) process.
Work system design provides the means for setting standards
against which to compare new methods, new materials, and new
designs, assures that employees know how to do their job, and
provides the information needed by the company to calculate its
costs.
Wiley 2010 36
Work System Design Across
the Organization
Work system design affections functional
areas throughout the organization
Accounting calculates the cost of products
manufactured, variances between planned and
actual costs as well as operational efficiency
Marketing uses work system design as the
bases for determining led time
Wiley 2010 37
Work System Design Across
the Organization cont
Information systems uses estimates of job
duration and resources in the software for
scheduling and tracking operations
Human resources uses work sampling to
establishes and validate hiring criteria
Wiley 2010 38
Chapter 11 Highlights
Work system design involves job design, methods or process
analysis and work measurement. Job design specifies the
work activities of an individual or group in support of
organizational objectives
Relevant job design issues include design feasibility, the
choice of human or machine, the use of teams, and the
location where the work is to be done. Technical feasibility is
the degree to which an individual or group of individuals is
physically and mentally able to do the job. Economic
feasibility is the degree to which the value of a job adds and
the cost of have the job done are profitable for the company.
Wiley 2010 39
Chapter 11 Highlights cont
Methods or process analysis is concerned with how the employee
does the job. Methods analysis can also be used to improve the
efficiency of an operation.
Work measurement is used to determine standard times. A
standard time is how long it should take a qualified operator, using
the appropriate process, material, and equipment, and working at a
sustained pace, to do a particular job. Standard times are used for
product costing, process and material evaluations, and for planning
workloads and staffing. Standard times are usually based on time
studies. Work sampling is used to estimate the proportion of time
that should be spent on an activity.
Wiley 2010 40
Chapter 11 Highlights cont
To do a time study, first identify the job then break the job into work
elements. Finally, determine the number of observations needed and
perform the observation.
Work sampling involves random observations of a worker. Each time
you observe the worker, you note what activity the worker is doing.
After numerous observations, you can project the expected proportion of
time the worker should spend on different activities.
Standard times are developed with either time studies, elemental time
data, or predetermined time data. You learned how to develop standard
times using time studies. After conducting the time study, you compute
the mean observed time for each work element. You compute the
normal time for the work element by multiplying the mean observed
time by the performance rating factor. You find the standard time for
each work element by multiplying the normal time by the allowance
factor.
Wiley 2010 41
Chapter 11 Highlights cont
Standard times are used to compare alternative processes, evaluate new
materials or components, and evaluate individual worker performance.
Standards also allow you to determine when a job should be completed
or how many units can be done in a period of time.
Worker compensation systems are either time-based or out-put based.
Time-based systems pay the employee for the number of hours worked.
Output-based systems pay the employee for the number of units
completed. Compensation schemes can be based on either individual or
group performance. and can be based on individual or group
performance.
Learning curves show the rate of learning that occurs when an employee
repeats the same task. Using learning curves, you can estimate how
long a particular task will take. It allows the company to schedule better
and calculate cost more accurately.
Chapter 11 Homework Hints
11.5: calculate normal time (NT)
11.6: use NT from 11.5 and allowance factorjob time
[AF
JOB
] to calculate standard time (ST)
11.7: use the total ST from 11.6 to calculate the number of
units.
11.8: use NT from 11.5 and allowance factortime worked
[AF
TIME WORKED
] to calculate ST
11.9: use the total ST from 11.8 to calculate the number of
units.
11.10: check the book for help in finding other factors to
choose between the two models calculated above.
11.19: refer to example 11.6 and use table 11-9 for data to
calculate the time based on the learning curve.
Note that problems 5-10 are worth 5 points; 19 is worth 10
for a total of 40 points for the assignment.