Traffic Characterization

Essentially two ways of characterizing traffic loads

1. Use of equivalent axle loads where the traffic mix
consisting of a wide variety of axle loads is converted to
equivalent number of standardized axle loads (typically 80
kN [18 kips] single axle).
2. Use the actual load spectra for single, tandem, tridem, and
quad axles. This load spectra includes the counts of number
of axles within a series of load groups in a given time
interval.
Traffic Characterization
Current Traffic Data Requirements Equivalent
Single Axle Loads


Convert mixed traffic into equivalent 80-kN (18-kip) single
axles
Equivalent axles based on loss in serviceability
measured at the AASHO Road Test
Load equivalent factors used for the conversion
Traffic Characterization
Equivalent Single-Axle Load (ESAL)

A number which equates the cumulative damage to a pavement produced by a
mixed traffic stream relative to that produced by a stream of 18-kip Single Axle Loads
The total # of passes by the standard axle load during the design period
The equivalent number of 80 kN ESALs for a specific combination of pavement type
(flexible or rigid), terminal serviceability, axle type, and axle weight.




m = # of load groups
n
i
= # of passes of the ith axle load grp.
F
i
= LEF for the ith axle load group
i
m
i
i
n F ESAL

=
=
1
Traffic Characterization

LEF (or EALF)
A numeric factor relating the damage per pass caused by traffic at a
given axle load to that caused by a standard axle load (18kips/80kN).
Or
Key Points About LEF
Load Magnitude
Load Configuration
Load Repetitions

Truck weight is less critical
Critical
Because each pavement structure
responds differently to any given axle
load, each pavement type or structure
will have different load equivalency
factors
Traffic Characterization

For example, consider two identical pavement structures that are subjected to
loadings from two different axle types. Assume that first pavement structure
sustains 100,000 applications of an 80 kN single axle for a serviceability drop from
4.2 to 2.5, while the second pavement structure sustains 14,347 applications of a
133 kN single axle for the same serviceability loss. The load equivalency factor the
133 kN single-axle load is then:
LEF = 100,000 / 14,347 = 6.97
133 kN
This means that 14,347 passes of the 133 kN single axle produce much damage
as 100,000 applications of the 80 kN single axle, in other words, that 1 pass of the
133 kN single axle causes the amount of damage as about 7 passes of the 80 kN
single axle.
Theoretical Analysis (From failure criteria- Fatigue)
* 4.5 FOR PAKISTAN
Ls = load in kip on std. Axle which has the same # of axles as Lx
Lx = load in kips on a single axel
Ls =18kips if Lx is on a single axle
Note:
EALF Depends on:
Axle load type (single, tandem, tridem,
Terminal PSI
Overall strength of pavement (SN, D)
*
4
(

=
S
X
L
L
EALF
Load Equivalence Factor for
Pakistan
DESCRIPTION CODE
NTRC
1982
ACE
1988
R.R &P
1989
NESPAK
1989
PRESENT
RN 31
NTRC
(AASHTO)
2-SINGLE AXLE
1.2 3.37 4.96 6.33 7.4 6.49 4.67
3-AXLE R.TANDEM
1.22 7.63 24.82 26.72 18.48 8.84
4- AXLE, SINGLE
1.2+
2.2
9.77 9.68 19.00 12.99
4-AXLE R.TANDEM
1.2-
22
11.4 18.0
7
24.46 25.05 17.30 10.35
5- AXLE, TANDEM
1.22-
22
5.5-
9.2
6.95 12.64 28.30 19.59
6- AXLE, T.TRIDEM
1.2+
222
9.04 22.56 27.96 10.90
LANE AND DIRECTIONAL DISTRIBUTION,AASHTO
2002
Directional distribution factor for AADTT
Default set @ 0.55
Lane distribution factor
1 lane = 1.0
2 lanes = 0.9
3 lanes = 0.6
4 lanes or more = 0.4
47 tonnes
54% of 47=27 tonnes
33% of 47=15.5 tonnes
11% of 47=4.5 tonnes
CALCULATION OF LOAD ON EACH AXLE
Description Code Front Rear1 Rear2 Rear3 Rear4 Rear5 Empty loaded
2-Axle 1.2 31 69 - - - - 7 16
3-Axle Single 1.2-2 21 40 39 - - - 12 32
3-Axle Tandem 1.22 21 39 40 - - - 11 32
4-Axle Rear Tandem 1.2-22 14 30 28 28 - - 17 40
5-Axle Tandem 1.22-22 12 20 20 24 24 - 23 47
6 Axle Tandem tridem 1.22+ 222 11 17 16 18 18 18 23 59
Axle load factor NTRC
Typical AASHTO Load Equivalency Factors
Single Axles

Axle Load (lbs) LEF (SN=5,
pt=3.0)
2,000
50,000
40,000
30,000
20,000
18,000
10,000
0.0002
30.0
13.1
5.1
1.44
1.00
0.101
Typical AASHTO Load Equivalency Factors
Tandem Axles

Axle Load (lbs) LEF (SN=5,
pt=3.0)
2,000
10,000
18,000
34,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
0.0002
0.008
0.090
1.12
1.98
4.05
7.1
Contact Area between Tyre and Road
In calculating pavement stresses it is necessary to know the contact area between
tyre and road. The shape of the contact area between a tyre and the road is
approximately circular when the load applied is small relative to the recommended
maximum for the tyre, but it becomes increasingly elongated as the wheel load is
increased at constant inflation pressure.
The size of the tyre's contact patch is related to:
the weight on the wheel
the tyre pressure.

For example, say that the weight on the tyre was 900lb, and the tyre pressure was
10 psi. That internal pressure means that each square inch of area can support 10lb,
so, in this case, the contact patch will be 90 square inches. If the tyre pressure was
30 psi, the contact area would be 30 square inches, and if the pressure was 90 psi,
the contact area would be 10 square inches.

So, as you can see, the size of the contact patch of a tyre is not related to the width
of the tyre - it is, in fact, proportional to the tyre pressure
Contact area of tyre on pavement
0.6L
0.8712L
0.3L
0.6L
L
Equivalent Area Actual Area
High tyre Pressure
Low tyre Pressure
TYRE PRESSURE
The contact pressure can be computed by the inflation pressure and the load applied on
tyre. This is the measured contact area. Also area can be computed from the imprints of
tyre shown in figure. On seeing FIGURE it can be inferred that the two envelopes of
computed and actual areas are similar for small wheel loads but diverge considerably at
high loading because at high loads significant proportion of load is taken by side walls.

Measurements of the actual pressure acting between the tyre and the road show that where
the load ratio (actual wheel load: recommended maximum wheel load for the tyre is small,
the distribution of pressure across the tyre area is parabolic, but as the load ratio is
increased the pressure becomes more uniform.

Equivalent Single Wheel Load (ESWL)

Not a unique quantity
Function of equivalency criterion
Subgrade stress
Surface/interface deflection
Tensile strain
Function of analysis approach
Equivalent homogeneous system
Layered system
Equivalent contact area vs. equivalent contact pressure

EQUIVALENT SINGLE WHEEL LOAD

Basic Concept: Determine number of vehicle passes for a given wheel
configuration that will cause the same damage as one pass of a standard
single wheel
Ns = ESWL * Nd
Ns = number of standard single wheel load applications
Nd = number of dual wheel load applications (e.g.)
ESWL = Equivalent Single Wheel Load factor
Equivalent Single Wheel Load Concepts Are
Particularly Important For Airfield Pavements






Approximate Load Equivalency Factor
(LEF) AASHTO 93





k = 3.8 4.2
= 1.00, 1.83, and 2.66 for single, tandem and tridem,
respectively
k
Load
LEF
|
.
|

\
|

=
o 18


NHA AXLE Load Limits

No class on
Monday 15 Feb 2010