BIO320

INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

 Madam Nursyazni Binti Abdul Rahim Level 2, 039 (019-2984616)

Only accept call/sms from Monday-Friday (85pm ONLY) Major rules:
2 times absent without MC: 1st reminder 3rd times: 2nd reminder 4th times: Bar, u will get ZZ Activate i-Learn account (notes & quizzes)

Minor rules:
Late 30 minutes, will be ask to leave the class, consider as absent. U can eat, drink, but no sleeping. No phone call except from your parents No taking picture of the slides Muslimah are encouraged to wear hijab

Ice Breaking
Course Description:
This course gives the information about diversity of life on Earth from the most simple and primitive organisms towards complex and advanced organisms. It also covers how living things are categorized into groups based on their certain criteria.

Ice Breaking
Course Objectives At the end of the course students should be able to: 1. Know how living things are named and classified and the importance of classification 2. Understand the characteristics, unique life history and common feature of each major groups of living things 3. Understand the evolutionary relationship and how organisms are related to one another

Ice Breaking
Coursework : 40% -Tests 20% (3) -Quizzes (3) 10% -Lab 10%

Final Examination : 60% Total : 100%

You are responsible on your own achievements

Take out a piece of paper

Write a letter to yourself, what do u know about biological diversity Starting with Dear <your full name (student id/group)> Submit

Example:

CHAPTER 1
CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS

iNtroduction
Classification
organizing organisms into group based on their similarities, which reflect historical relationships among ancestry

Biological Diversity / Biodiversity

the variety of living organisms live in particular area or region also means the number or abundance of different species living within any particular region Scientist sometimes refer to the biodiversity of an ecosystem
Eg: tropical rainforest, sea..

 The scientific study of the diversity of organisms and their evolutionary relationship is called systematics
To classify species reflecting their evolutionary relationship based on shared characteristic Important aspect of systematic is taxonomy

Taxonomy
branch of biology dealing with the identification, naming and classifying the diverse form of life ordered division of organisms into categories based on a set of characteristics used to assess similarities and differences

 Modern:
Use genetics to study taxonomy, classification

Earlier Era:
Use physical characteristics though classification by Linnaeus was only based on resemblances, many features of his system stay useful The systems are:
Binomial system of nomenclature (or binomial designations for species ) Hierarchical classification

The binomial system

Developed by Carolus Linnaeus Linnaeus Objective: For scientists who speak and write in different languages could communicate clearly Binomial : because it has 2 parts Eg: Panthera tigris (tiger) and Panthera Leo (lion) Panthera is a genus, a classification category that can include many species The second word that is specific epithet, refers to one species within that genus

 Linnaeus also rationalized the nomenclature by:

Using the same name for both sexes Using the same name for adults and juveniles Used Latin language

Latin was used because it is the universal and well known language by most scholar at that time
Eg: Man (English)
Spanish : Hombre German : Herr Chinese : Ren French : Masculan Latin : Homo

If a scientist refers today to Homo, all scientists know what organism/taxon he or she means.

Hierarchical classification
based on the idea that :
the species was the smallest unit each species or taxon nested within a higher category these groups become increasingly inclusive as they become larger, going from species to kingdom or domain the taxa are dynamic, changing as our knowledge of organisms and evolutionary relationships change.

 2 key characteristics of taxa:

Members of lower level taxa are more similar to each other than are members of higher level taxa
Members of different genus in the same Kingdom Animalia, eg Equus burchelli (zebra) and Equus caballus (domestic horse), are more similar than members of different Class, eg Mammals and Birds

Equus burchelli

Equus caballus

 2 key characteristics of taxa:

Members of specific taxa are more similar to each other than any members of different specific taxa found at the same hierarchical level
Members among the same genus, eg Canis Dingo (Dingo) and Canis latrans (Coyote) more resembles each other than with Sus scrofa (Wild boar) , eventhough there are in the same Kingdom, but they are from different genus.

Canis latrans

Canis dingo

Sus scrofa

Example of Hierarchical Classification

Classification system
1700s Carolus Linnaeus classified organisms into 2 large group: -Plantae -Animalia 1969 Robert Whittaker proposed 5 Kingdoms: - Plantae -Animalia -Fungi -Protista -Monera

Organisms were placed into these kingdoms based on :

Type of cell (prokaryotic or eukaryotic) Levels of organization (unicellular or multicellular) Type of nutrition

Five-kingdom system
Whittaker indicate that plants, animals and fungi are all multicelular eukaryotes, but each has its own mode of nutrition, such as: plants are autotrophic (photosynthesis) animals are heterotrophic (ingestion) fungi are heterotrophic saprotrophs. Monera and protista are unicellular.

Three-domain system
3 domains are Archaea, Bacteria and Eukarya Bacteria and Archaea include prokaryotic unicellular organisms that reproduce asexually Eukarya includes unicellular to multicellular organisms whose cells have a membrane-bounded nucleus. Most of them involve in sexual reproduction with various types of life cycles.

Phylogenetic trees
branching diagram shows a hypothesis about evolutionary relationships among organisms. taxonomy is part of a larger division of biology known as systematic
which is the study of the diversity of organisms at all levels of organization.

determination of phylogeny is a goal of systematics in Greek, systematic comes from word systema, an orderly arrangement

 To build a phylogenetic tree:

must have data that comes from the characteristics used in classification determine the characters of various taxa characters have a morphocline, or direction of evolutionary transformation, that runs from primitive to derive

 Primitive characters:
are structural, physiological or behavioral trait or feature that is present in the ancestor and all members of a lineage.

Derived characters:
are structural, physiological or behavioral trait or features that are found in members of a lineage or descent but not found in the ancestors of the lineage. Different lineages diverging from common ancestor may have different derived characters.

Phylogenetic tree showing relationship between human and apes

Systematic in reconstructing phylogenetics

Many different types of data are used in developing phylogenetic classifications. Different traits The different types of sources to get the data are as follows: Fossil records Homology & Analogy Shared derived character Molecular biology Taxa reflect evolutionary relationship

Fossil record
any recognizable structure from an organism, or any impression from such a structure, that has been preserved good fossil record helps reveal ancestral traits traits shared due to descent from a common ancestor can be recognized by studying the traces of organisms that lived in the past.

Homology & analogy

Homology
anatomical features of different organisms that have a similar appearance or function because they were inherited from a common ancestor that also had them The more homologies two organisms possess, the more likely it is that they have a close genetic relationship Homoplasy?

Analogy
anatomical features that have the same form or function in different species that have no known common ancestor.
Eg: the wings of a bird and a butterfly are analogous structures because they seem similar in appearance and function. However, their wings are quite different on the inside. Bird wings have an internal framework consisting of bones, while butterfly wings do not have any bones at all and are kept rigid mostly through fluid pressure

Shared derived character

Divided into 2: Plesiomorphic (shared ancestral character)
traits that were present in an ancestral species and remain present in the entire group that descended from that ancestor. Eg: vertebral column, present in all vertebrates, is an ancestral character found in classes within subphylum Vertebrata

 Synapomorphic (shared derived character)

traits found in two or more taxa that first appeared in their most recent common ancestor Eg: ?

Molecular biology
The molecules of organisms constitute their micromorphology Among the most important biochemical traits of organisms are their nucleic acids-DNA and RNA-and the proteins whose synthesis are directed by the nucleic acids. Molecular biology factor that used in developing phylogenetic tree are: Protein comparisons DNA sequence RNA sequence analysis Molecular clock analysis

Taxa reflect evolutionary relationships

Based on molecular data and other taxonomic criteria, systematists identify 3 kinds of taxonomic grouping: Monophyletic Paraphyletic polyphyletic

Monophyletic contains all the desendents of the most recent common ancestor. The taxon is based on shared derived characters Paraphyletic consists of a common ancestor but do not include all its descendents Polyphenetic consist of several evolutionary lines and not including the most recent common ancestor of the included lineage. The organisms in polyphyletic group evolved from different ancestors.

Cladistic systematic
Developed by Willi Hennig claims that taxa is monophyletic, each monophyletic taxon, or clade, consists of a common ancestor and all its descendent.

Cladists use shared derived characters to determine these relationships, and express them with diagrams called cladograms is a branching diagrams and each branch on a cladogram represents the divergence or splitting of two new groups from a common ancestors.
Cladistics analysis involves the identification of clades Clades are evolutionary branches that consist of an ancestral species and all its descendents.

 On cladogram, shared derived characters are indicated as hachures across the lines. The mammal clade is united by fur, the lizard, pigeon, mouse-chimp clade is united by claws or nails, etc.

 Important parts of cladistic analysis are a comparison between ingroup and outgroup. Ingroup: group taxa that are actually being analyzed Outgroup: taxa that is known to have relationship to the ingroup but it is not the member of ingroup Eg: turtle which is a reptiles is outgroup and the mammal is collectively ingroup are all linked to each other because they are vertebrates Thus, vertebral column or backbone is a shared primitive character while hair and mammary glands are derived characters that differentiate reptiles from mammals

*derived character/trait: - Traits those evolved

relatively recently and so are not present in the ancestral species being considered

parsimony
Another important aspect of cladistic analysis
choose the simplest explanation to interperet data.

Actual meaning:
the principle based on the experience that the simplest explanation is most probably the correct ones

Beaver

Systematists use the principle of parsimony to build the phylogenetic trees which correspond to the smallest number of evolutionary changes Eg:
parsimony leads to the hypothesis that a beaver is more closely linked to the kangaroo than the platypus because both the beaver and kangaroo have gestation.

Kangaroo

Platypus

Platypus: A living proof nature has a sense of humor! Slices-of-life.com

phenetics
A.k.a Numerical Taxonomy Invented by Michel Adanson (1750s) based on similarities of many characters Organisms are classified according to the number of characters or anatomical characteristics they share without trying to determine whether their similarities are homologus or analogous. done by counting up differences in features between organisms, with the species having the fewest differences being the closest related

Can this be phenetic?

Evolutionary systematics
A.k.a classical evolutionary based on both shared ancestral characters as well as shared derived characters. utilize anatomical data to classify organisms and build phylogenetic trees based on evolutionary principles Fossils, evidence of past life are not included in this classification

Thank you~