ME 327(1) Introduction

Heat Transfer
ME 327(1) Introduction 2 of 27
Definition
Heat transfer is energy transfer due to a temperature difference
in a medium or between two or more media
Different types of heat transfer processes are called different
modes of heat transfer
Conduction heat transfer is due to a temperature gradient in
a stationary medium or media
Convection heat transfer occurs between a surface and a
moving fluid at different temperatures
Radiation heat transfer occurs due to emission of energy in
the form of electromagnetic waves by all bodies above
absolute zero temperature
Net radiation heat transfer occurs when there exists a
temperature difference between two or more surfaces emitting
radiation energy
ME 327(1) Introduction 3 of 27
Heat Transfer Applications
Heat transfer is important to Industrial and Environmental
problems and processes
All Energy production and conversion processes involve heat
transfer
US businesses and institutions spend $175 billion/year on energy
In Canada, Energy makes up
6% of GDP,
200 000 jobs,
$54 billion in exports (~$1,800 per capita), and
$20-30 billion in investments
In electric power generation, heat transfer problems must be
solved
In some applications, heat transfer rate is maximized (heating)
while in other cases it is minimized (cooling)
ME 327(1) Introduction 4 of 27
Relationship of Heat Transfer to Thermodynamics
We learnt in thermodynamics that energy can be transferred
by interactions between a system and its surroundings
Heat and work are the only form of interactions between a
system and its surroundings
Thermodynamics is concerned with equilibrium end states
and processes
But does not provide information on the nature of the process or
the rate at which energy is transferred
Energy transfer rates are important in engineering process
design and development
ME 327(1) Introduction 5 of 27
Introductory Heat Transfer Concepts
Relationship of heat transfer to thermodynamics



Heat transfer = work + rate of change of internal energy

For a thermodynamic reversible process,
where:
T = temperature S = entropy
P = pressure V = volume
U = internal energy t = time

dt
dU
W Q + =
} }
+ =
dt
dU
PdV
dt
d
TdS
dt
d
ME 327(1) Introduction 6 of 27
Since all heat transfer processes are irreversible and S
cannot be defined as a function of T, the rate of heat transfer
Q, cannot be predicted by the above thermodynamic
equation.
We must therefore use transport laws, i.e.
Fouriers Law
Newtons law of cooling, and
Stefan Boltzmann law for radiation.

Heat transfer is indeed applied thermodynamics
Heat transfer is energy transfer as a result of a temperature
difference


ME 327(1) Introduction 7 of 27
Modes of Heat Transfer
There are three basic modes of heat transfer
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation
We will first examine all three modes briefly and then
examine them in more detail later
ME 327(1) Introduction 8 of 27
Conduction
Conduction heat transfer is due to random molecular and
atomic vibrational, rotational and translational motions
High temperature and more energetic molecules vibrate more
and transfer energy to less energetic particles as a result of
molecular collisions or interactions

The heat flux (a vector) q
x
(W / m
2
)
is characterized by a transport property know as the
Thermal Conductivity, k (W / m K)
W = watts m = Meters K = temperature in Kelvin

ME 327(1) Introduction 9 of 27
Consider the heat flux through a slab of thickness, L
For the one-dimensional plane, the heat flux or heat transfer
rate is Fouriers Law:



The total heat transfer through a given cross-sectional area,
A, is given by:






dx
dT
k q
' '
x
=
T
2
T
1
L
X=0 X=L
x
0 L
q
x


T
2
T
1
L
T T
dx
dT
1 2

=
( ) ( )
L
T k
L
T T k
L
T T k
q
2 1 1 2
' '
x
A
=

=

=
L
T A k
A q q
' '
x x
A
= =
where

ME 327(1) Introduction 10 of 27
Conduction example
ME 327(1) Introduction 11 of 27
Convection
Convection heat transfer involves both energy transfer due to
random molecular motions and by bulk motion of the fluid
Convection heat transfer includes both forced convection and
natural convection
In convection heat transfer, the transfer of heat is between a
surface and a moving fluid (liquid or gas), when they are at
different temperatures. The rate of transfer is given by
Newtons Law of Cooling.

( )

= T T h q
s
' '
Moving fluid
T


T
s
q
T
s
> T


ME 327(1) Introduction 12 of 27
Typical values of convection heat transfer
coefficient
Process h (W / m
2
K)
Free Convection
Gases 2 -25
Liquids 50 -1000
Forced Convection
Gases 35 -250
Liquids 50 -20,000
with Phase Change
Boiling or
Condensation
2500 -100,000
ME 327(1) Introduction 13 of 27
Convection example
Problem 1.13, p.35, text
Calculate the heat flux
from your hand when it is
exposed to moving air
and water, assuming the
surface temperature of
your hand is 30C.
ME 327(1) Introduction 14 of 27
Convection example - 2
ME 327(1) Introduction 15 of 27
Radiation
All surfaces of finite temperature emit energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves
In the absence of an intervening medium, there is a heat transfer by
radiation between two surfaces at different temperatures
The maximum flux, E (W / m
2
), at which radiation may be emitted
from a blackbody surface is given by:
Stefan Boltzmann Law


where
E
b
or E = Surface emissive power (W / m
2
)
T = absolute temperature (K)
= Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 x 10
-8
(W / m
2
K
4)


4
s b
T E o =
E
b

T
s
ME 327(1) Introduction 16 of 27
For a real surface:


For a surface with absorptivity , the incident radiation (G,
W/m
2
) or surface irradiation from the surroundings that is
absorbed by the surface is given by:


where
G = incident radiation (W / m
2
)
T = absolute temperature (K)
= surface emissivity (0 1)
= surface absorptivity (0 1)

G G
abs
o =
4
s
T E o c =
G
G
abs
ME 327(1) Introduction 17 of 27


For a gray surface =
When radiant energy is incident on a transparent surface, it
can be absorbed, reflected, or transmitted through the
material. Hence,


where
= materials surface reflectivity
t = materials transmissivity
1 = + t + o
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Consider a small gray surface at temperature T
s
that is
completely enclosed by the surroundings at temperature T
sur
.
The net rate of radiation heat transfer from the surface is:





Where h
r
is the radiation heat transfer coefficient, W / m
2
K



( ) ( )
sur s r
4 4
s
' '
rad
T T h T T
A
q
q
sur
= o c = =
q
sur

q
s

T
s
T
sur
( )( )
2
sur
2
s sur s r
T T T T h + + o c =
4
sur
4
s sur s
' '
rad
T T G E q oo co = o =
ME 327(1) Introduction 19 of 27
Representative range of radiation heat transfer
coefficient values
h
r
(W / m
2
K) = 0.1 = 0.5 = 0.9
T
s
= T
sur
= 300K 0.6 3.1 5.5
T
s
= T
sur
= 500K
2.8 14.2 25.3
T
s
= T
sur
= 800K
11.6 58.0 104.4
T
s
= 300K
T
sur
= 500K
1.5 7.7 13.9
T
s
= 300K
T
sur
= 800K
4.6 22.8 41.0
ME 327(1) Introduction 20 of 27
Radiation ex.
Problem 1.26, p.37, text
An instrumentation package
has a spherical outer surface
of diameter D = 100 mm and
emissivity c = 0.25. The
package is placed in a large
space simulation chamber
whose walls are maintained
at 77 K. If the operation of
the electronic components is
restricted to the temperature
range of 40 s T s 85C, what
is the range of acceptable
power dissipation for the
package?
ME 327(1) Introduction 21 of 27
Conservation of Energy for a Control Volume or
System
Consider a control volume (C. V.)
shown here:


Energy Conservation or First Law of Thermodynamics
requires that for the C.V.
The rate of energy inflow (E
in
) and rate of energy generation (E
g
)
must be balance by the rate of energy outflow (E
out
) and energy
storage (E
st
), Hence,


For a short time interval t,



in
E

out
E
st
E

g
E

dt
dE
E E E E
st
st out g in
= = +

st out g in
E E E E A = +
ME 327(1) Introduction 22 of 27
For a closed system when E
g
= 0:

Where Q is the heat energy inflow, W the work done by the
system or heat energy outflow, and U the change in internal
energy of the system

On rate basis the above equation is written as:


For an open system with mass flow rate (m) under steady
state conditions, the flow work is the product of Pressure (P)
and specific volume of the fluid (v). The work done by the
system is W and if there is no energy generation or
conversion within the system or control volume, the energy
conservation equation on rate basis is:

U W Q A =
dt
dU
W q =

ME 327(1) Introduction 23 of 27

Where:
m = mass flow rate (kg/s)
u = specific internal energy or internal energy per unit mass
(J/kg)
q = heat transfer rate (W)
W = work done by the system per unit time (W)
v = specific volume of volume per unit mass (m
3
/kg)
Pv = specific flow work or flow work per unit mass (J/kg)
V = Fluid flow velocity (m/s) P = Pressure (Pa)
g = Gravity (m/s
2
) z = elevation (m)

0 W q gz
2
V
Pv u m gz
2
V
Pv u m
outlet
2
inlet
2
= +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + +

ME 327(1) Introduction 24 of 27
Conservation of Energy for a Control Surface
For a surface illustrated below, there is no mass or volume,
and consequently, E
g
= 0, and E
st
= 0.
For conservation of energy for the control surface under
steady state or transient conditions:

0 E E
out in
=

0 q q q
' '
rad
' '
conv
' '
cond
=
T
sur

Surface
Surroundings
q
rad

q
cond

q
conv

T
1

T
2

Fluid
T

T
x
ME 327(1) Introduction 25 of 27
Energy balance example (cv)
ME 327(1) Introduction 26 of 27
ME 327(1) Introduction 27 of 27
Energy balance example (cs)