AUTOMOBILE HISTORY

First automobile developed in 1860s in Europe. By 1900 cars gaining some reliability. All cars are hand made costing $10,000.00 Henry Fords better ideas: Interchangeable parts Mass production using an assembly line
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Classification of Automobiles
1-Purpose Passenger Cars- ' Bus etc Goods Carriers- Truck 2-Fuel Used Petrol vehicle , Diesel Vehicle, Gas Vehicle Electric Vehicle ,Steam Vehicle. 3-Capacity HTV , LTV, LMV
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4.Construction- Single Unit Vehicles 'GF/ ,; & Tractors 5.Drive- LeftHand Drive&RightHand Drive 6. Wheel and Axle Two wheeler Three wheeler Four wheeler (4x2) and (4x4) Six wheeler (6x2) and (6x4)
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7.Suspension System: Conventional Independent 8.Body and Number of Doors: a)Sedan b)Convertible c)Station wagon d)Delivery van e)Special purpose vehicle 9.Transmissions 1)Conventional 2) Semiautomatic 3)Automatic

MASS PRODUCTION OF AUTOMOBILES

Mass production reduces the cost of automobiles to $200.00.

There are now 200,000,000 vehicles in the U.S. alone.
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Four Basic Parts of Vehicles

Chassis or framework Engine or power plant Drive Train Body

Automobile Bodies
Most made of stamped steel parts A few cars made of aluminum (NSX Cadillac Allenta) Some use composite materials (Saturn or GM Minivan)
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Chassis
Classification on basis of According to its control. According to fitting of engine. According to no. of wheels and no. of driving wheels. Acording to wheel base.
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According to its control.

Conventional Chassis.

Semi-forward chassis.

Full forward chassis.

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According to fitting of engine.

Engine at front. Engine fitted infront infront but crosswise.

Engine fitted at the centre of chassis. Engine fitted at the back.

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According to no. of wheels and no. of driving wheels.

4x2 Drive chassis Vehicle. 4x4 Drive chassis Vehicle 6x2 Drive chassis Vehicle.

6x4 Drive chassis Vehicle.

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CHASSIS FRAME AND BODY

Introduction of Chassis Frame: Chassis is a French term and was initially usedto denote the frame parts or Basic Structure of the vehicle.
It is the back bone of the vehicle. A vehicle with out body is called Chassis. The components ofthe vehicle like Power plant, Transmission System, Axles, Wheels and Tyres, Suspension, Controlling Systems like Braking, Steering etc., and also electrical system parts are mounted on the Chassis frame.

It is the main mounting for all the components including the body. So it is also called as Carrying Unit.

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Chassis &Components

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Components of Chassis
The following main components of the Chassis are 1. Frame: it is made up of long two members called side members riveted together with the help of number of cross members. 2. Engine or Power plant: It provides the source of power 3. Clutch: It connects and disconnects the power from the engine fly wheel to the transmission system. 4. Gear Box 5. U Joint 6. Propeller Shaft 7. Differential

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FRAMES
Frame or underbody is the main part of chassis on which the remaining parts of chassis are mounted.

Chassis frames are made of steel section

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FUNCTIONS OF THE CHASSIS FRAME:

1. To carry load of the passengers or goods carried in the body. 2. To support the load of the body, engine, gear box etc., 3. To withstand the forces caused due to the sudden braking or acceleration 4. To withstand the stresses caused due to the bad road condition. 5. To withstand centrifugal force while cornering

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TYPES OF CHASSIS FRAMES:

There are three types of frames 1. Conventional frame 2. Integral frame 3. Semi-integral frame

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Conventional frame
1. Conventional frame: It has two long side members and 5 to 6 crossmembers joined together with the help of rivets and bolts. The frame sectionsare used generally. a. Channel Section - Good resistance to bending b. Tabular Section - Good resistance to Torsion c. Box Section - Good resistance to both bending andTorsion

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Conventional frame

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Integral Frame:
Integral Frame: This frame is used now a days in most of the cars. There is no frame and all the assembly units are attached to the body. All the functions of the frame carried out by the body itself. Due to elimination of long frame it is cheaper and due to less weight most economical also.

It is also called unitized frame-body construction. In this case, the body shell and underbody are welded into single unit. The underbody is made of floor plates and channel and box sections welded into single unit.
Only disadvantage is repairing is difficult.
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Integral Frame:

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Semi - Integral Frame

Semi - Integral Frame: In some vehicles half frame is fixed in the front end on which engine gear box and front suspension is mounted. It has the advantage when the vehicle is met with accident the front frame can betaken easily to replace the damaged chassis frame. This type of frame is used in FIAT cars and some of the European and American cars.

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Semi - Integral Frame

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Bodys

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 The body of the most vehicle should fulfil the following requirements: 1. The body should be light. 2. It should have minimum number of components. 3.It should provide sufficient space for passengers and luggage. 4. It should withstand vibrations while in motion. 5.It should offer minimum resistance to air. 6. It should be cheap and easy in manufacturing. 7. It should be attractive in shape and colour. 8. It should have uniformly distributed load. 9. It should have long fatigue life
10. It should provide good vision and ventilation.
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VARIOUS LOADS ACTING ON THE FRAME:

Various loads acting on the frame are

1. Short duration Load - While crossing a broken patch 2. Momentary duration Load - While taking a curve. 3. Impact Loads - Due to the collision of the vehicle. 4. Inertia Load - While applying brakes. 5. Static Loads - Loads due to chassis parts. 6. Over Loads - Beyond Design capacity.oken patch

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What is an engine?
- a machine which converts chemical energy into mechanical energy

Types of engines:
*External combustion engine. -Ex: steam engine *Internal combustion engine. -Ex: car engine

Internal combustion engines

Reciprocating engine - 4 stroke engine - 2 stroke engine Rotary engine - Wankel engine - Turbine engine

What is an engine?
- a machine which converts chemical energy into mechanical energy Types of engines: *External combustion engine. -Ex: steam engine *Internal combustion engine. -Ex: car engine

Figure source:http://www.tpub.com/machines/12.htm

Internal combustion engines

Reciprocating engine - 4 stroke engine - 2 stroke engine Rotary engine - Wankel engine - Turbine engine Reaction engine - Rocket engine

The very basic of an engine

The ideal gas law: PV = nRT P: pressure; V: volume; n: mole number; T; temperature - Gas will expand upon the application of heat. - The application of heat upon the gas will increase its pressure (if gas is confined in a volume). - The compression of the gas will increase its temperature We try to create heat (through burning) to the gas, so the gas can push the piston, thereby crank the engine, and output the movement to useful work.

How engine works?

Air
Mixing Fuel Combustion Power
Useful Work

Exhaust

Carburetor

Ignition

Valves

Flywheel Crankshaft

Engine Parts, Description, Function, Construction

Engine Parts, Description, Function, Construction Cylinder Barrel

Chrome-molybdenum or nickel-molybdenum steel Used to guide and seal piston and to mount cylinder assembly to head Barrel threads into head to form cylinder assembly

Engine Parts, Description, Function, Construction Cylinder Walls

Cylinder interior wall

Engine Parts, Description, Function, Construction Cylinder heads Constructed of cast aluminum Provides combustion chamber, and mounting areas for spark plugs and valve parts

Engine Parts, Description, Function, Construction The cylinder head is designed to transfer heat by conduction to the fins and then from the fins to the air by convection The exhaust side of the head has the most fins as it runs the hottest The head also may incorporate a drain line fitting to allow excess oil to return to the crankcase (intercylinder drain lines on radials)

Engine Parts, Description, Function, Construction Valve Guides Made of bronze Secured in the head by an interference (shrink) fit

Valve Seats Made of chrome steel, stellite, or brass Secured by interference fit

Crankcase The crankcase holds all of the engine parts in alignment and supports the cylinders and crankshaft It provides a place to mount the engine to the aircraft Constructed of aluminum alloy Divided into sections (radial)

 Nose section - Houses prop shaft and bearings Power section - mount for cylinders Fuel induction section - intake tubes, blower, manifolds (supercharger) Accessory section - mounts for magnetos, pumps, generators (magnesium)

Pistons Constructed of aluminum alloy Parts include top, ring grooves, ring lands, skirt, and piston pin boss Cooling fins on the bottom help the oil carry heat away from the piston top

 Cam ground pistons diameter of the piston is greater perpendicular to the piston pin boss This compensates for uneven expansion during operation (becomes round at operating temperature)

 Piston head designs

Piston rings (general) Provide seal between cylinder wall and piston Rings ride on a thin film of oil Conduct heat from the piston out to the cylinder and the fins Material is cast iron or chrome steel Piston rings (type) Compression rings are located at the top of the piston and seal the combustion chamber Types include rectangular, tapered,wedge

 Compression rings

Oil control rings On bottom of piston below compression rings . Regulates oil film thickness on cylinder wall. Holes in ring and piston allow excess oil to drain back to crankcase. Too much oil film and the engine will use excessive oil and too little oil causes heat and insufficient lubrication. Oil scraper rings Directs the oil away from or towards the oil control rings depending upon the requirements of the engine.

 Piston ring end gap The gap at the end of the rings allows for expansion and contraction and unevenness in the cylinder wall Butt, step and angle types Always stagger the end gaps during ring installation to prevent losing compression

 Piston Pins (wrist pins) Connects the piston to the end of the connecting rod. Constructed of hardened steel. The pin is retained in the piston with clips or plugs to prevent cylinder wall scoring. Typical Lycoming and Continental pins are freefloating, meaning the pin is not secured to the piston or the rod.

 Connecting Rod Assembly The link between the crankshaft and the piston Normally steel but some low powered engines use aluminum to save weight Cross section is an H or I Types include : Plain Rod Fork and blade rod Master and articulated

Master and Articulating Rod

Used on radial engines Uses knuckle pins to retain articulated rods to master
Master Rod Articulating Rod

Master/Articulating Rod in Action

Crankshaft

Changes reciprocating motion of pistons into rotating motion to drive propeller Constructed of chrome-nickel-molybdenum-steel May be one piece or as many as three separate pieces The propeller mounts to the front of the crankshaft using a spline, taper, or flange The crankshaft rotates within the crankcase and is supported by main bearing journals Crankshaft throws or crankpins are off center and account for the reciprocating motion of the pistons

Crankshaft Main Bearing Journal, Pin, Arm

Crankshaft Ends For Mounting Propellers

 Dynamic Dampers can be mounted to the crankshaft to reduce vibration (floating) Counterweights are also used to reduce vibration but they are rigid and do not float Counterweights and dampers are used in piston engines because the power pulses and movement of the pistons create large amounts of vibration Vibration shortens airframe and engine life and can lead to premature component failure The engine is also mounted in rubber bushings to absorb vibration

2 Piece Crankshaft With Counterweights (Single Throw, Single Cylinder)

 Valves and the Valve System Valves control the flow of gases inside the engine Poppet valves are the most common and get their name from the popping open and closed during operation Intake valves are chrome steel and are cooled by the incoming air and fuel mixture Exhaust valves are also alloy steel but are often filled with metallic sodium for cooling. Valve faces may be coated with Stellite to reduce wear and corrosion Valve faces are ground to 30 degrees for intake (airflow) and 45 degrees (cooling) for exhaust

 Valve Springs Inner and outer springs are used to prevent bounce, provide redundancy, and increase valve closing pressure Held in place by retainer washers on the top and bottom of the spring Split key or keeper holds the retainers and springs in place on the valve stem

Valve Lifter or Tappet

May be solid, roller, or hydraulic The lifter follows the cam lobes and pushes on the pushrod Solid and roller lifters require adjustable rocker arms Hydraulic type lifters fill with oil and lengthen to compensate for any clearances in the valve system

 Camshaft Turns at 1/2 the speed of the crankshaft Must be mechanically coupled to the crankshaft for timing purposes (gears, belts, chains) The camshaft consists of bearing journals and lobes spaced along the shaft Each lobe is positioned to open and close a valve at a specific time

Lobe

 Pushrod transmits push of lifter up to rocker arm Hollow to allow oil to flow to the top of the cylinder for valve part lubrication Length can be varied to adjust valve clearance Valve clearance is the space between the top of the valve stem and the rocker arm. This clearance is to prevent a valve from being held open with the resulting heat build-up and loss of compression valve clearance increases as the engine operates due to cylinder expansion (solid lifters) Hydraulic lifters have a 0 clearance in operation

Valve clearance adjustment

Valve clearance measurement

 Rocker Arm Adjustable in solid lifter engines and fixed in engines with hydraulic lifters One end rests on the valve stem and the other on the pushrod Rocking motion opens and closes the valves Roller rocker arms incorporate a roller that reduces friction and are used in some radials and experimental engines

Propeller Reduction Gearing

Purpose is to reduce propeller rpm to its optimal speed and to increase engine rpm to its optimal speed. Propeller always turns slower than the engine

Spur Gears
Simple drive and driven gear system. Number of teeth on gear and gear diameters determine reduction ratio. Large gear would be mounted to propeller as it turns the slowest

Planetary Gears Ring gear, Planet gear, Sun gear Large gear reductions possible Compact and versatile Common in large radials and turbine engines

Engine Lubrication And Cooling

Lubrication and Cooling System in an Engine

There are a few safety precautions that need to be followed when checking the lubrication and cooling systems in an engine
1. The engine should be cold before you start. 2. The cap on the top of almost every car or truck radiator (or on the separate coolant reservoir) is designed for safety first letting any builtup pressure escape slowly before the cap is completely removed. 3. Dont touch the oil because it maybe hot. 4. Wear gloves or use a rag. 5. Wear safety glasses. Can anyone give me another?

Does anyone know the importance of lubrication and cooling systems in an engine? The lubrication and cooling system of an internal- combustion engine is very important. If the lubricating system should fail, not only will the engine stop, but many of the parts are likely to be damage beyond repair. Coolant protects your engine from freezing or overheating.

What lubrication system does for an engine.

1. The job of the lubrication system is to distribute oil to the moving parts to reduce friction between surfaces which rub against each other. 2. An oil pump is located on the bottom of the engine. 3. The pump is driven by a worm gear off the main exhaust valve cam shaft. 4. The oil is pumped to the top of the engine inside a feed line. 5. Small holes in the feed line allow the oil to drip inside the crankcase. 6. The oil drips onto the pistons as they move in the cylinders, lubricating the surface between the piston and cylinder. 7. The oil then runs down inside the crankcase to the main bearings holding the crankshaft. 8. Oil is picked up and splashed onto the bearings to lubricate these surfaces. 9. Along the outside of the bottom of the crankcase is a collection tube which gathers up the used oil and returns it to the oil pump to be circulated again.

Proper lubrication of an engine is a complex process.

Motor oil must perform many functions under many different operating conditions. The primary functions of oil are listed below: 1. Provide a barrier between moving parts to reduce friction, heat buildup, and wear. 2. Disperse heat. Friction from moving parts and combustion of fuel produce heat that must be carried away. 3. Absorb and suspend dirt and other particles. Dirt and carbon particles need to be carried by the oil to the oil filter where they can be trapped. 4. Neutralize acids that can build up and destroy polished metal surfaces. 5. Coat all engine parts. Oil should have the ability to leave a protective coating on all parts when the engine is turned off to prevent rust and corrosion. 6. Resist sludge and varnish buildup. Oil must be able to endure extreme heat without changing in physical properties or breaking down. 7. Stay fluid in cold weather; yet remain thick enough to offer engine

What the cooling system does for an engine.

1. Although gasoline engines have improved a lot, they are still not very efficient at turning chemical energy into mechanical power. 2. Most of the energy in the gasoline (perhaps 70%) is converted into heat, and it is the job of the cooling system to take care of that heat. In fact, the cooling system on a car driving down the freeway dissipates enough heat to heat two average-sized houses! 3. The primary job of the cooling system is to keep the engine from overheating by transferring this heat to the air, but the cooling system also has several other important jobs. 4. The engine in your car runs best at a fairly high temperature. 5. When the engine is cold, components wear out faster, and the engine is less efficient and emits more pollution. 6. So another important job of the cooling system is to allow the engine to heat up as quickly as possible, and then to keep the engine at a constant temperature.

Cooling systems consist of three main parts:

Your cooling system's pumping function is handled by its water pump, which keeps the coolant mixture moving. The main water pump is gearor belt-driven but, in many cars, a secondary electric water pump is used for improved flow and cooling.

1. Pumping

Cooling systems consist of three main parts:

2. Piping
Your cooling system's piping consists of all hoses, any control valves, the heater core, the radiator and the expansion tank. Because of the materials used and the constant contact with coolant, all parts in this system deteriorate more from time than use. Maintenance of cooling system piping consists of scheduled coolant replacement, replacement of all hoses on a regular basis and replacement of any plugged or leaking parts. All hoses should be checked at least twice a year for abrasions, cracks, flexibility and evidence of leakage. Whenever the coolant is drained for replacement or during engine repairs, any suspect hoses should be replaced. All hoses should be replaced at least every few years. Radiators, expansion tanks, heater cores and control valves are normally only replaced due to leakage or plugging. The condition of these parts should be assessed by a professional since proper functioning is critical to many other systems within your car.

Cooling systems consist of three main parts:

3. Temperature Control
Your cooling system's temperature controls include all coolant temperature sensors, thermostat, radiator or expansion tank cap, cooling fan(s) and fan clutch (if equipped). These cooling system parts function primarily independent of the engine but control the engine either through cooling or by sending control signals to your car's electronic systems. The thermostat is a spring-loaded valve that opens and closes based on the temperature of the coolant flowing through it. A high temperature reading followed by a drop to normal temperature (or a continuously low temperature) is a common first sign of a sticking thermostat. However, many other conditions may cause these symptoms, so you need to know how to eliminate each possibility. The radiator or expansion tank cap is also a spring-loaded valve reacting to system pressure. It serves to maintain proper system coolant level at predetermined pressures. It must always be replaced with an exact replacement cap with the same pressure setting. Never use other caps except for short-term emergencies!

Liquid Cooled System

In a liquid cooled system, heat is carried away by the use of a heat absorbing coolant that circulates through the engine, especially around the combustion chamber in the cylinder head area of the engine block. The coolant is pumped through the engine, then after absorbing the heat of combustion is circulated to the radiator where the heat is transferred to the atmosphere. The cooled liquid is then transferred back into the engine to repeat the process.

Maintenance of your cooling system

Maintenance of your cooling system sensors is virtually impossible since there's nothing really to "maintain". Keeping them clean both internally (coolant replacement) and externally (engine cleaning) is the best way to ensure trouble-free driving. Checking and replacing all parts at the factory-recommended time or mileage limits helps as well. Is there any questions?

Lubrication and Cooling System

The lubrication system of an internal-combustion engine is very important. If the lubricating system should fail, not only will the engine stop, but many of the parts are likely to be damaged beyond repair. The only purpose of the engine's cooling system is to remove excess heat from the engine, to keep the engine operating temperature at its most efficient level, and to get the engine up to the correct temperature as soon as possible after starting. A cooling system is also required to prevent the internal engine parts from melting from the heat of the burning fuel.

Engine Failures
Does anyone know the how many engine failures are attributed to cooling system failure? -Over 50% of engine failures can be attributed to cooling system failure.

Thing needed to repair a cooling system

Can anyone list some of the things needed to repair a cooling system? - Coolant - Water Pump - Water Pump Drive Belt (timing, V-, or flat) - Hoses (upper & lower radiator, bypass, heater, manifold coolant, etc.) - Radiator - Expansion Tank - Heater Core - Control Valves - Temperature Sensors - Radiator Cap and/or Expansion Tank Cap - Fan Clutch Can anyone tell me how important a lubrication system is in an engine?

1) What does an Oil Pump do? 2) What does an Oil Pan do? 3) What does an Engine Oil Cooler do? 4) What does an Oil Filter do? 5) What does a Water Pump do? 6) What does a fan do? 7) What does a Radiator do? 8) What does the Transmission Oil Filter do? 9) What does the Transmission Oil Cooler do? 10) What does the Liquid Cooling system do?

1) http://www.autohausaz.com/html/cooling_systems.html 2) http://auto.howstuffworks.com/cooling-system.htm 3) http://science.howstuffworks.com/engine12.htm 4)http://www.tpub.com/content/fc/14104/css/14104_115.ht m 5) http://www.tpub.com/content/constructionforklifts/TM10-3930-660-10/css/TM-10-3930-660-10_22.htm

Engine Lubrication And Cooling

Principles of Engine Lubrication Primary purpose is to reduce friction between moving parts. Liquid lubricants (oil) are used universally in aircraft.

No metal to metal contact occurs.

Friction and wear held to a minimum.

Engine Lubrication And Cooling

Principles of Engine Lubrication Oil film acts as a cushion between metal parts.

Crankshaft and connecting rods

Shock-loading parts

Engine Lubrication And Cooling

Principles of Engine Lubrication Absorbs heat from the parts. Pistons and cylinder walls. Forms a seal between the piston and the cylinder wall. Reduce abrasive wear. Picks up foreign particles and carries them to the filter.

Engine Lubrication And Cooling

Principles of Engine Lubrication Reduces friction Cushions Absorbs heat Cooling Forms a seal Reduces abrasive wear Cleans

Engine Lubrication And Cooling

Requirements & Characteristics Of Lubricants The Most important characteristic is its viscosity. The resistance of an oil to flow. High viscosity is oil that flows slow. Low viscosity is oil that flows freely.

Engine Lubrication And Cooling

Lubricating Oil Types Straight Mineral Oil

Ashless Dispersant
Synthetic

Engine Lubrication And Cooling

Straight Mineral oil Used in engines after overhaul or when new to facilitate wear-in or seating of piston rings. Often forms sludge when exposed to temperatures higher than normal.

Engine Lubrication And Cooling

Ashless Dispersant (AD) Replaces mineral oil after the piston rings have seated. Less tendency to oxidize to carbon, or form ash deposits.

Particles dont clump together, forming sludge.

Better lubricating properties than mineral oils.

Engine Lubrication And Cooling

Oil Compatibility

Can different brands and grades of the same oil type be mixed?

Engine Lubrication And Cooling

Internal Lubrication Of Reciprocating Engines Three Methods used

Pressure
Splash Combination Splash-And-Pressure

Engine Lubrication And Cooling

Pressure-Lubrication A mechanical pump supplies oil under pressure to the bearings throughout the engine. Splash-Lubrication Used in addition to pressure lubrication on aircraft engines.

Engine Lubrication And Cooling

Advantages of pressure lubrication system Positive introduction of oil to the bearings.

Cooling effect caused by the large quantities of oil which can be circulated through a bearing.
Satisfactory lubrication in various attitudes of flight.

From Reservoir

To Filter

Engine Lubrication And Cooling

Lubrication Systems Wet-Sump System

Dry-Sump System

Engine Lubrication And Cooling

Wet-Sump System consist of a sump or pan, in which the oil supply is contained. The sump or pan is attached to the bottom of the engine case.

Engine Lubrication And Cooling

Wet-Sump Disadvantages Oil supply limited by sump. Cooling is difficult. Higher operating temperatures. Not adaptable to inverted flying Advantages Requires no external parts and fittings to complicate installation. No second (scavenge pump) required. Can be operated in much cooler temperatures.

Engine Lubrication And Cooling

Dry-Sump Oil supply is carried in a separate tank.

Scavenger pumps used to return the oil to the tank.

Used in radial engines and engines capable of sustained inverted flight.

Dry-Sump

Engine Lubrication And Cooling

Lubrication System

Engine Lubrication And Cooling

Engine Cooling Systems Why is excessive heat undesirable in internal combustion engines?

Engine Lubrication And Cooling

Affects the behavior of the combustion of the fuel/air charge. It weakens and shortens the life of engine parts. It impairs lubrication.

Engine Lubrication And Cooling

Engine Cooling Systems About one-fourth of the heat released in an engine is changed into useful power.

Half of the heat goes out the exhaust, and the other is absorbed by the engine.
Oil picks up some heat and transfers it to the airstream. The engine cooling system takes care of the rest.

Engine Lubrication And Cooling

Cooling Fins Cooling fins increase the surface of a cylinder.

This arrangement increases the heat transfer by radiation (from a jug to a barrel).
Cylinders are normally replaced when a specified number of square inches of fins are missing.

Engine Lubrication And Cooling

Cowling and baffles Designed to force air over the cylinder cooling fins. Direct the air close around the cylinders and prevent it from forming hot pools. Blast tubes direct jets of cooling air onto the bottom spark plug elbows.

Engine Lubrication And Cooling

Engine Lubrication And Cooling

Temperature Controls Controls the air circulation over the engine.

Keeps the engine from overheating on take off and getting too cold in high-speed low-power letdowns.
Cowl Flaps, Augmenters

Engine Lubrication And Cooling

Cylinder Head Temperature Indicating System Consists of and indicator, electrical wiring, and a thermocouple. Thermocouple consists of two dissimilar metals connected by wiring to an indicating system. A voltage is produced when the temperature of the junction is different from the temperature where the dissimilar metals are connected.

Engine Lubrication And Cooling

Thermal Shock Occurs when engine parts that are operating at high temperatures are quickly cooled. Idle power, high airspeed, cool or cold air. Some parts are cooled much more rapidly then others. These parts shrink in size faster then the warmer, surrounding metals.

INTRODUCTION
The power out put of an engine depends upon the amount of air inducted per unit time and the degree of utilization of this air , and the thermal efficiency of the engine.

Indicated engine Power IP=P*L*A*n*K/60000 ..(1)

Where, IP= indicated power (kW) P=indicated mean effective pressure(N/m2) L=length of stroke A= area of piston n= no of power stroke, for 2-s engine-N and for 4-s engine N/2, N= rpm K= No of cylinders

Three possible methods utilized to increase the air consumption of an engine are as follows: Increasing the piston displacement: This increases the size and weight of the engine, and introduces additional cooling problems. Running the engine at higher speeds: This results in increased mechanical friction losses and imposes greater inertia stresses on engine parts. Increasing the density of the charge: This allows a greater mass of the charge to be inducted into the same volume.

Definition
The most efficient method of increasing the power of an engine is by supercharging, i.e. increasing the flow of air into the engine to enable more fuel to be burnt. A Supercharger is run by the mechanical drive, powered by engine power . A turbocharger uses the otherwise unused energy in the exhaust gases to drive a turbine directly connected by a co-axial shaft to a rotary compressor in the air intake system.

SUPERCHARGERS
EXHA UST GASES

FUEL/AIR MIXTURE

Emission Controls

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 Purpose: control emissions and exhaust from vehicle Turn the harmful gases the car manufactures into harmless ones that don't ruin the environment Problem gases :
hydrocarbons (unburned) carbon monoxide nitrogen oxides sulfur dioxide phosphorus lead and other metals HC CO NOx SO2 P Pb
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emission control system

Three (major) Pollutants

Hydrocarbons (HC) Un-burnt Gasoline Carbon Monoxide (CO) CO results from the incomplete combustion Fuel Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) NOx results from air being overheated.

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HC
HC results from gasoline that is not burned in the engine. This can be due from misfires, burning rich, open loop operation, or excessive cranking.

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CO
CO results from the incomplete combustion of organic materials. gasoline, kerosene, natural gas, propane, coal, wood, charcoal, diesel fuel, heating oil and almost any other combustible material, such as tobacco and paper.

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NOx
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are reactive gases Cause a host of environmental concerns impacting adversely on human health and welfare. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), in particular, is a brownish gas that has been linked with higher susceptibility to respiratory infection, increased airway resistance in asthmatics, and decreased pulmonary function. Other effects: Principle cause of ground-level ozone formation Contribute to acid deposition, which can damage trees at high elevations and increases the acidity of lakes and streams, which can severely damage aquatic life Contribute to increased levels of particulate matter by changing into nitric acid in the atmosphere and forming particulate nitrate
134F combustion temperature gets above 2,500 degrees

 Evaporation from the fuel tank. 5% Blow-by gases which escape from the crankcase. 20-25% Tail pipe emissions. 60-75% Carburetor evaporation from the float bowl on old cars.

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POLUTION
20 % Crankcase vapors 20% Fuel Vaporization 60% Exhaust

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Three Ways to Control Pollution

1 Improve combustion

2 Capture the vapors and re-burn them. 3 Treat the exhaust.

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Ways to Combat Pollution

Capture the vapors and burn them
EGR Charcoal Canister

Improve the combustion

Monitor mixture Less Power

Treat the exhaust

Fewer Emission
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 improves vaporization improves mixture distribution As engine warms up, the thermostatic spring is heated and loses tension allows counterweight to change position of heat control valve gradually so that, at higher driving speeds with a thoroughly warmed engine, exhaust gases pass directly to the exhaust pipe and muffler
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Manifold Heat Control

Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)

Used to send some of the exhaust gas back into the cylinders Reduce combustion temperatures Reduces NOx gases

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AIR INJECTION SYSTEMS

Air Pump Diverter Valve One-way Valves Air Switching Valve Hoses & Tubing

Pump air
Exhaust manifold Catalytic converter

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Catalytic Converter
One of the most important emission controls on the car. Literally burns up pollution in the exhaust system.

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Catalytic Converter
Contains precious metals Down Stream O2 Re-burner 2 way 3 way 3 way w/air aluminum oxide, platinum and palladium carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons to change into water vapor and carbon dioxide

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 Two Way Catalyst: oxidize CO and HC to CO2 and H2O. Temperature of 200C for catalyst to "light off". Above 450C, oxidation of SO2 to SO3 occurs, combines with water to form sulfuric acid. Leads to the formation of sulfates. (acid rain) 2-way catalyst may reduce NOx by 10-20 %.

2 way

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3 way
Reactions between CO, HC, and NOx result in the removal of all three major exhaust pollutants. In order to get high conversions of CO and NOx, the air-to-fuel mixture should be held close to the stoichiometric requirement. If not, conversion of either NOx or CO will deteriorate. Requires monitoring the oxygen in the exhaust gas and using it in a feedback loop to adjust the fuel to air ratio. Makes the 3-way closed loop system more expensive than an open loop 2-way, or an open loop 3-way system. Some latest catalysts have a NOx reduction of 7075%. 145

3 way with air

Uses air tube after Rhodium sub straight Air helps reduce HC & CO

146

Test Exhaust Emissions

Shop tests: The exhaust is sampled and checked for the following gases.
1 Hydrocarbons (HC) 2 - Carbon Monoxide (CO) 3 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 4 Oxygen (O2)

State Emission Testing: Vehicle run on a dynamometer (IM240 Test) Measures HC, CO, CO2, O2
147

GOOD NEWS
Emission controls have reduced carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions by about ninety-six percent from pre-control vehicles. That's almost a hundred percent!

148

BAD O2 sensors

149

EPA EMISSION STANDARDS

1968-1971 1972-1974 1975-1979 1980 1981- on I.M. 240 Test

HC 900 ppm HC 800 ppm HC 700 ppm HC 300 ppm HC 220 ppm

CO 9.0% CO 8.0% CO 7.0% CO 3.0% CO 1.2%

150

TURBOCHARGERS
The major disadvantage of a supercharger is its reliance on engine power to drive the unit. By connecting a centrifugal supercharger to a turbine drive wheel and installing it in the exhaust path, the lost engine horsepower is regained to perform other work and the combustion heat energy lost in the engine exhaust (as much as 40% to 50%) can be harnessed to do useful work.

TURBOCHARGERS
The turbochargers main advantage over a mechanically driven supercharger is that the turbocharger does not drain power from the engine. In a naturally aspirated engine, about half of the heat energy contained in the fuel goes out the exhaust system.

FIGURE 19-7 A turbocharger uses some of the heat energy that would normally be wasted.

TURBOCHARGERS

FIGURE 19-8 A turbine wheel is turned by the expanding exhaust gases.

TURBOCHARGERS
Turbocharger Design and Operation

A turbocharger consists of two chambers connected by a center housing. The two chambers contain a turbine wheel and a compressor wheel connected by a shaft which passes through the center housing.

TURBOCHARGERS
Turbocharger Design and Operation

FIGURE 19-9 The exhaust drives the turbine wheel on the left, which is connected to the impeller wheel on the right through a shaft. The bushings that support the shaft are lubricated with engine oil under pressure.

TURBOCHARGERS
Turbocharger Design and Operation

If properly maintained, the turbocharger also is a trouble-free device. However, to prevent problems, the following conditions must be met:
The turbocharger bearings must be constantly lubricated with clean engine oil turbocharged engines should have regular oil changes at half the time or mileage intervals specified for nonturbocharged engines.

TURBOCHARGERS
Turbocharger Design and Operation
Dirt particles and other contamination must be kept out of the intake and exhaust housings. Whenever a basic engine bearing (crankshaft or camshaft) has been damaged, the turbocharger must be flushed with clean engine oil after the bearing has been replaced. If the turbocharger is damaged, the engine oil must be drained and flushed and the oil filter replaced as part of the repair procedure.

TURBOCHARGERS
Turbocharger Size and Response Time

A time lag occurs between an increase in engine speed and the increase in the speed of the turbocharger. This delay between acceleration and turbo boost is called turbo lag To minimize turbo lag, the intake and exhaust breathing capacities of an engine must be matched to the exhaust and intake airflow capabilities of the turbocharger.

FORCED INDUCTION
4 WAYS TO INCREASE COMPRESSION
SUPERCHARGING TURBOCHARGING CHEMICAL ENGINE MODIFICATION

TURBOCHARGERS
COMPRESSES AIR GOING INTO COMBUSTION CHAMBER DEPENDS ON RAPID EXPANSION OF EXHAUST GASES LEAVING COMBUSTION CHAMBER TURBO LAG IS A CHARACTERISTIC

TURBOCHARGER PARTS
TURBINE SHAFT COMPRESSOR WASTEGATE ACTUATOR CENTER HOUSING
CONTAINS COOLING SECTION 222C

223C

TURBO CYCLE

EXHAUST GAS FORCES TURBINE TO ROTATE COMPRESSOR FORCES (PACKS) CREATING A DENSE AIR-FUEL MIXTURE CREATES A POSITVE PRESSURE (BOOST)

BOOST PRESSURE CONTROL

WASTEGATE DIAPHRAGM CONTROLS BOOST PRESSURE MECHANICAL OR ELECTRONICALLY CONTROLS WASTEGATE OPERATION
224C

TURBOCHARGER COOLING
EXHAUST FLOW PAST TURBINE WHEEL CAUSES HIGH TEMPS WATER COOLING OIL COOLING OIL SEALS MUST LET TURBO COOL DOWN ON SHUTOFF

HEAVY DUTY APPLICATION

SAME PRINCIPLE AS SMALLER ONES BOOST PRESSURE SLIGHTLY HIGHER COOLING A LOT MORE IMPORTANT DIESEL TRUCK, LOCOMOTIVE, HEAVY EQUIPMENT

ROTARY RACING ENGINE

MAINTENANCE / PROBLEMS
LACK OF OIL DIRTY OIL MECHANICAL DAMAGE OF VANE WHEELS WASTEGATE CONTROL PROBLEMS OIL CAKING

PAGE 302 LAB

DIAGNOSIS
OIL LEAKS, HOSES, LINKAGES BLUE SMOKE EXCESSIVE NOISE EXHAUST LEAKS TEST BOOST PRESSURE TURBO R & R REQUIRES PRELUBING

THE END