Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Chapter two Characteristics of a fluid

2.1 Fluid.
Fluids are divided into:
liquids and gases.

A Liquid is hard to compress and as in the ancient saying Water takes the shape of the vessel containing it, it changes its shape according to the shape of its container with an upper free surface. Gas on the other hand is easy to compress, and fully expands to fill its container. There is thus no free surface.

Fluid Characteristics.
1. Fluid Compressibility
A fluid increases its pressure against compression, trying to retain its original volume. This characteristic is called compressibility.

2. Fluid viscosity.
A fluid shows resistance whenever two layers slide over each other. This characteristic is called viscosity.

In general, liquids are called incompressible fluids and gases compressible fluids.

 Nevertheless, for liquids, compressibility must be taken into account whenever they are highly pressurised, and for gases compressibility may be disregarded whenever the change in pressure is small. Although a fluid is an aggregate of molecules in constant motion, the mean free path of these molecules is 0.06 m or so even for air of normal temperature and pressure, so a fluid is treated as a continuous isotropic substance.

Ideal or perfect fluids

Non-existent, assumed fluid without either viscosity or compressibility is called an ideal fluid or perfect fluid. A fluid with compressibility but without viscosity is occasionally discriminated and called a perfect fluid, too. Furthermore, a gas subject to Boyles-Charles law is called a perfect or ideal gas.

2.2 Units and Dimensions

All physical quantities are given by a few fundamental quantities or their combinations. The units of such fundamental quantities are called base units, combinations of them being called derived units. The system in which length, mass and time are adopted as the basic quantities, and from which the units of other quantities are derived, is called the absolute system of units.

2.2.1 Absolute system of units

MKS system of units
This is the system of units where the metre (m) is used for the unit of length, kilogram (kg) for the unit of mass, and second (s) for the unit of time as the base units.

CGS system of units

This is the system of units where the centimetre (cm) is used for length, gram (g) for mass, and second (s) for time as the base units.

International system of units (SI?

SI, the abbreviation of La Systkme International dUnites, is the system developed from the MKS system of units. It is a consistent and reasonable system of units which makes it a rule to adopt only one unit for each of the various quantities used in such fields as science, education and industry. There are seven fundamental SI units, namely: metre (m) for length, kilogram (kg) for mass, second (s) for time, ampere (A) for electric current, kelvin (K) for thermodynamic temperature, mole (mol) for mass quantity and candela (cd) for intensity of

Dimensions and units

Dimension
All physical quantities are expressed in combinations of base units. The index number of the combination of base units expressing a certain physical quantity is called the dimension, as follows. In the absolute system of units the length, mass and time are respectively expressed by L, M and T. Put Q as a certain physical quantity and c as a proportional constant, and assume that they are expressed as follows: Where , , and are respectively called the dimensions of Q for L, M, T.

Specific Volume
The specific volume is the amount of space occupied by a unit of mass. Specific volume is the total volume V divided by the total mass m of an object. v=V/m Where:
v = specific volume, ft3/lbm V = volume, ft3 m = mass, lbm

 A low value of density (or high value of specific volume) means the molecules or atoms in the substance are relatively far apart. This is true of gases (hydrogen, oxygen) and for vapors such as steam. Conversely, a high value of density (or low value of specific volume) means that the molecules or atoms are relatively close together. This is true of liquids (such as water) and solids such as ice. The density of a material will govern the way it behaves when put in contact with other materials. If a material that is very dense is placed into a container containing a less-dense liquid, the material will sink. For example, if a piece of iron is placed into a container of water, the iron will sink because it is

Density Differences for NonMixable (Non-Miscible) Fluids

Miscibility is the property of two substances, which makes them "mixable". Salt and water are miscible so when they are mixed together they make salt water and stay mixed until separated by evaporation. But when two substances are non-miscible (not mixable), like oil and water, the water, being the highest density liquid sinks to the bottom of the container, and the oil being less dense rises to the top. They "unmix themselves very quickly.

Example
Using information from Table 1-1, Densities of Common Materials, calculate the specific volume of mercury. = 1/ v v = 1/

Example
An unknown material has a specific volume of 0.37 g/cm3 calculate its density. =1/v

Example
An unknown material has a specific volume of 0.02 ft3/lbm calculate its density.

Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a fluid or solid to the density of a standard fluid. Water is the standard of comparison for liquids and solids, and air is the standard of comparison for gases.

Specific gravity is a unitless quantity

 When specific gravity is calculated to be a number greater than the number 1.0 (one) the liquid or gas is more dense than its standard so may tend to drop to the bottom of a container. When specific gravity is calculated to be a number smaller than the number 1.0 (one) the liquid or gas is less dense than its standard and may tend to rise to the top of the container. Specific gravity is a measure of the relative

Example
Given:
water = density of water, 1.0 g/cm3 oil = density of oil, 0.83 g/cm3

Calculate the specific gravity of oil.

Since the specific gravity is less than 1, the oil will float.

Example
Given
water = density of water, g/cm3 mercury = density of mercury, 13.6 g/cm3

Calculate the specific gravity of mercury.

Since the specific gravity is greater than 1, the mercury will sink.

 Densities of Common Fluids

Pressure ( p )
All substances are made of molecules. A molecule is a chemically bonded group of atoms (or elements). The key to understanding of these general characteristics of a fluid is found in comprehending just three things about a fluid:
mass; the internal energy of a molecule, and the attraction of each molecule for every other molecule.

 These three characteristics are the major source of the other general characteristics of every fluid. Therefore, knowing the mass, the internal energy of a molecule, and the attraction of molecule for molecule explains, viscosity, fluid friction, compression and decompression pressures, atmospheric pressure, temperature, head pressure, buoyancy, hydraulic pressure, condensation and boiling, and several other fluid characteristics.

 Pressure is caused by the collisions of the molecules of a fluid with the walls of its container. Except at absolute zero temperature, where by definition all internal energy is zero and all movement is stopped, the molecules of any substance are constantly moving. In a solid, the molecules are tightly bound so that they only vibrate and rotate. In a liquid or a gas, they also have freedom to translate (move around). The molecules are continuously colliding with each other and with the walls of their container. As billions of molecules in each cubic inch of a fluid collide billions of times each second with the walls, they exert forces that push the walls outward. The forces resulting from these repeated collisions by these molecules add up to the pressure exerted by a gas on itself and on its surroundings.

Pressure Definition
Pressure is "the force per unit of area that a substance exerts on itself and on its surroundings. In a confined fluid, pressure is always exerted equally in all directions. We use the lower case p for pressure.

Pressure Measurements
Pressure is a force divided by an area. In the English system, we measure pressure in pounds per square inch. In SI, the pressure unit is the pascal. These two units are given as follows:

 There are two standard methods used to measure pressure:

The amount of pressure above a perfect vacuum (absolute), and The amount of pressure above or below atmospheric pressure, (gage).

Pressures referenced to a perfect vacuum are called absolute pressures. In the United States, we use psi for our pressure measurements. An absolute pressure then has the unit "pounds per square inch - absolute" or psia. The letter "a" is not a unit; it is a label. It simply tells us what the reference pressure is Zero pressure on the absolute scale is the absence of all pressure. Outer space is nearly a perfect vacuum. Achieving a nearly perfect vacuum on earth is not difficult. The space above the mercury column in a barometer is a nearly perfect vacuum. Atmospheric pressure is the amount of pressure exerted on the earth's surface by the weight of the air molecules in the atmosphere. The atmospheric pressure at sea level is 14.7 psia.

 Pressure referenced to the earth's atmospheric pressure is called gage pressure, and is given as "pounds per square inch - gage" or psig. Again, the "g" is simply a label telling us what the reference pressure is. Figure 1.4 shows the relationships between absolute pressure measurements and gage pressure measurements. In doing problems, psig will cancel with psia since the units are psi even though the references are different. pabsolute = patm + pgage