Chapter I: Soil as a construction material

CauGie-Ninh Binh Road

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 If soil near the ground surface is strong and has sufficient bearing capacity, then shallow foundation is adopted. If the top soil is weak loose, soft or saturated, then the loads of the superstructures has to be transferred to deep foundation-Pile foundation. Third method comes under the heading foundation soil improvement. In the case of earth dams, there is no other alternative than compacting the remolded soil in layers to the required density and moisture content. The soil for the dam will be excavated at the adjoining areas and transported to the site. Soil improvement is frequently termed soil stabilization, which in its broadest sense is alteration of any property of a soil to improve its engineering performance. Soil improvement can be achieved through the following modes: 1. Increases shear strength 2. Reduces permeability, and

Soil Improvement and stabilization

3. Reduces compressibility

Contents
Compaction Dynamic compaction Sand Drains Prefabricated Vertical Drains Sand compaction pile Soil deep mixing method

Vertical Drains

Compaction

Soil Compaction in the Field:

5- Sheep foot Roller 1- Rammers

2- Vibratory Plates

6- Dynamic Compaction 3- Smooth Rollers

4- Rubber-Tire

Definition: Soil compaction is defined as the method of mechanically increasing the density of soil by reducing volume of air.

Load

gsoil (2) > gsoil (1)

Air Water

Air Water

Soil Matrix

Compressed soil
Solids Solids

gsoil (1) =

WT1 VT1

gsoil (2) =

WT1 VT2

Why Soil Compaction: 1- Increase Soil Strength 2- Reduce Soil Settlement 3- Reduce Soil Permeability 4- Reduce Frost Damage 5- Reduce Erosion Damage Factor Affecting Soil Compaction: 1- Soil Type 2- Water Content (wc) 3- Compaction Effort Required (Energy) Types of Compaction : (Static or Dynamic) 1- Vibration 2- Impact 3- Kneading 4- Pressure Water is added to lubricate the contact surfaces of soil particles and improve the compressibility of the soil matrix

Soil Compaction in the Lab:

2,5 kg 4,5 kg

1- Standard Proctor Test 2- Modified Proctor Test

45 cm

Standard Proctor Test

25 cm

Modified Proctor Test

Soil Compaction in the Lab:

1- Standard Proctor Test

Hammer weight = 2,5 kg Falling height = 25 cm Amount of layers =3 No. of blows/layer = 25 Compaction effort = 595 kJ/m3 Soil type = pass sieve no. 4 (4,76 mm)

2- Modified Proctor Test Hammer weight = 4.5 kg Falling height = 45 cm Amount of layers =5 No. of blows/layer = 25, 56 Compaction effort = 2693 kJ/m3 Soil type = pass sieve no. 4

Soil Compaction in the Lab: 1- Standard Proctor Test

2.5 kg hammer

Gs g w g dry 1e

gZAV =
Dry Density

Gs gw
1+ Wc Gs Sr
Zero Air Void Curve Sr =100%

g
H = 12 in

d max

4
2 5 25 blows per layer 1

wc1 gd1

wc2
gd2

wc3
gd3

wc4 gd4

wc5
gd5

Wet to Dry to Optimum Optimum (OWC)

Compaction Curve

Water Content

Increasing Water Content

10 cm diameter compaction mold. (V = 1/30 of a cubic foot)

Optimum Water Content

gdry =

gwet
1+

Wc %
100

Soil Compaction in the Lab:

1- Standard Proctor Test
ASTM D-698 or AASHTO T-99
Energy = 595 kJ/m3
Dry Density Zero Air Void Curve Sr = 60% Zero Air Void Curve Sr =100%

g g

d max

Zero Air Void Curve Sr < 100%

d max

2- Modified Proctor Test ASTM D-1557 or AASHTO T-180

Energy = 2693 kJ/m3

Compaction Curve for Modified Proctor

Compaction Curve for Standard Proctor (OMC) (OMC) Moisture Content

Energy =

Number of blows per layer x Number of layers x Weight of hammer x Height of drop hammer Volume of mold

Effect of Energy on Soil Compaction

Increasing compaction energy Lower OWC and higher dry density

Dry Density

Higher Energy

In the field increasing compaction energy = increasing number of passes or reducing lift depth In the lab increasing compaction energy = increasing number of blows

Water Content

Field Soil Compaction

Because of the differences between lab and field compaction methods, the maximum dry density in the field may reach 90% to 95%.

Dry Density

ZAV

95%

d max

d max

(OMC)

Moisture Content

Checking Soil Density in the Field:

1- Sand Cone (ASTM D1556-90)
A small hole (6" x 6" deep) is dug in the compacted material to be tested. The soil is removed and weighed, then dried and weighed again to determine its moisture content. A soil's moisture is figured as a percentage. The specific volume of the hole is determined by filling it with calibrated dry sand from a jar and cone device. The dry weight of the soil removed is divided by the volume of sand needed to fill the hole. This gives us the density of the compacted soil in lbs per cubic foot. This density is compared to the maximum Proctor density obtained earlier, which gives us the relative density of the soil that was just compacted.

2- Balloon Dens meter

The same as the sand cone, except a rubber balloon is used to determine the volume of the hole

3- Nuclear Density (ASTM D2292-91)

Nuclear Density meters are a quick and fairly accurate way of determining density and moisture content. The meter uses a radioactive isotope source (Cesium 137) at the soil surface (backscatter) or from a probe placed into the soil (direct transmission). The isotope source gives off photons (usually Gamma rays) which radiate back to the mater's detectors on the bottom of the unit. Dense soil absorbs more radiation than loose soil and the readings reflect overall density. Water content (ASTM D3017) can also be read, all within a few minutes.

Nuclear Density

Sand Cone

Compaction Specifications:

Compaction performance parameters are given on a construction project in one of two ways:
1- Method Specification detailed instructions specify machine type, lift depths, number of passes, machine speed and moisture content. A "recipe" is given as part of the job specifications to accomplish the compaction needed. 2- End-result Specification Only final compaction requirements are specified (95% modified or standard Proctor). This method, gives the contractor much more flexibility in determining the best, most economical method of meeting the required specs.

Dynamic compaction
Uses a special crane to lift 5-30 tons to heights of 40 to 100 feet (1feet=0,3m) then drop these weights onto the ground Cost effective method of densifying loose sands and silty soils up to 15 to 30 feet deep

Vertical Drains

Example (in vietnamese)

Lin quan n vic Cao tc Cu Gi - Ninh Bnh ang b ln nt, ngy 1/12, Tng Cng ty u t pht trin ng cao tc Vit Nam (VEC), B Giao thng vn ti cho bit, l do phi d ti ng sm kp mc tiu thng xe v gim p lc giao thng trn Quc l 1A. VEC cho hay, v tr mt ng b ln nt l on qua thn An Lc Thng (ti v tr Km256+186 - Km256+541) v thn Hong NHong Ngh (ti Km257+950 - Km258+300), huyn Yn (Nam nh). V tr ny, nm trong khu nn t yu, theo thit k cn phi p dng bin php x l nn t yu bng ging ct (Sand drain), bc thm (Prefabricated Vertical Drains) v gia ti ch ln khong t 4 n 7 thng. http://dantri.com.vn/xa-hoi/cao-toc-cau-gie-ninh-binh-lunnut-vi-co-dat-muc-tieu-thong-xe-669134.htm

Settlement requirement
Remaining consolidation settlement or residual settlement at centerline of the subgrade after construction completion will follow the Table II-1 of Vietnamese Standard 22 TCN 262-2000: i) Embankment location on soft soil ground for Highway of category 80 a) Near abutment: less or equal 10cm. b) At culverts or under public highway: less or equal 20cm. c) At normal embankment: less or equal 30cm. ii) In the construction of embankment and pre-loading At centerline, settlement velocity of the embankment bottom shall not exceed 10mm/ day.

Stability requirement
Factor of safety for embankment stability Forecasted slope stability following calculation results for each embankment stage (embanking and pre-loading) and for designed embankment (regarding maximum vehicle loading) is equal or over minimum stability as follows: During construction, Fs = 1.2 For long term stability, Fs = 1.4

SPT

Small SPT

SPT

Geotechnical properties

Using Geo-slope to calculate slope stability

Saspro Program

Vertical drain:

Vertical drain: Sand drains

Vertical drains are artificially-created drainage paths which are inserted into the soft clay subsoil. Thus, the pore water squeezed out during consolidation of the clay due to the hydraulic gradients created by the preloading, can flow faster in the horizontal direction towards the vertical drains.
It is taken advantage of the fact, that most clay deposits exhibit a higher horizontal permeability compared to the vertical. Subsequently, these pore water can flow freely along the vertical drains vertically towards the permeable layers. Therefore, the vertical drain installation reduces the length of the drainage path and, consequently, accelerates the consolidation process and allows the clay to gain rapid strength increase to carry the new load by its own

Vertical drain: Sand drains

At Hanoi-Laocai road

Prefabricated Vertical Drains

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gFH-DdnwsrI

Prefabricated Vertical Drains

In case of vertical drains being installed, consolidation degree will be calculated according to the Carillo formula as follow:
U 1 1 Uv * 1 Ur

Where U: Overall consolidation degree Uv: Vertical consolidation degree Ur: Radial (horizontal) consolidation degree Uv value was looked up base on the value of vertical time factor Tv that calculated as follow: Where
Cv * t 2 H Cv: Vertical consolidation coefficient, cm2/day Tv

t: time, day H: Length of drainage path, cm (=H/2 in case of 2 side drainage) The above formula of Tv is also the formula applied to calculate the consolidation in case of natural ground conditions.

In case of sand drain, F= Fn

SAND COMPACTION PILES AND STONE COLUMNS

Sand Compaction Piles
Sand compaction piles consists of driving a hollow steel pipe with the bottom closed with a collapsible plate down to the required depth; filling it with sand, and withdrawing the pipe while air pressure is directed against the sand inside it. The in-situ soil is densified while the pipe is being withdrawn, and the sand backfill prevents the soil surrounding the compaction pipe from collapsing as the pipe is withdrawn. Stone Columns The method described for installing sand compaction piles or the vibroflot described earlier can be used to construct stone columns. The size of the stones used for this purpose range from about 6 to 40 mm. Stone columns have particular application in soft inorganic, cohesive soils and are generally inserted on a volume displacement basis.

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SOIL STABILIZATION BY INJECTION OF SUITABLE GROUTS

Grouting is a process whereby fluid like materials, either in suspension, or solution form, are injected into the subsurface soil or rock. The purpose of injecting a grout may be any one or more of the following: 1. To decrease permeability. 2. To increase shear strength. 3. To decrease compressibility.

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