Mechanics of Translation

Friction exists in physical systems whenever mechanical surfaces are operated in sliding contact. Friction encountered in physical systems may be of many types. 1. Coulomb friction force: It is the force of sliding friction between dry surfaces. This force is substantially constant. 2. Viscous friction force: It is the force of friction between moving surfaces separated by viscous fluid, or the force between a solid body and a fluid medium. This force is approximately linearly proportional to velocity over a certain limited velocity range. 3. Stiction: It is force required to initiate motion between two contacting surfaces ( which is obviously more than the force required to maintain them in relative motion).

Analogous Circuits
Analogous circuits represent systems for which the differential equations have the same form. The corresponding variables and parameters in two circuits represented by equations of the same form are called analogs. An electric circuit can be drawn that looks like the mechanical circuit and is represented by node equations that have the same mathematical form as the mechanical equations.

 In this table the force f and the current i are analogs and are classified as through variables. There is a physical similarity between the two, because a measuring instrument must be placed in series in both cases; i.e. , an ammeter and a force indicator must be placed in series with the system. Also, the velocity across a mechanical element is analogous to voltage across an electrical element. Again, there is physical similarity, because a measuring instrument must be placed across the system in both cases. A voltmeter must be placed across a circuit to measure voltage; it must have a point of reference. A velocity indicator must also have a point of reference. Nodes in the mechanical network are analogous to nodes in the electric network.

G(s) = transfer function of the system Thus the transfer function of a time-invariant system is the ratio of the Laplace transforms of its output and input variables, assuming zero initial conditions.

 Note that whenever a transfer function is used to describe a system, the system is always implicitly assumed to be linear, timeinvariant, and relaxed at to=0. There are two different ways in which transfer function models are usually obtained 1. For lumped linear time-invariant systems, mathematical model building based on physical laws normally results in a set of (firstorder, and second-order) differential equations. Applying Laplace transform to the differential equations results in a transfer function model of the system. 2. The transfer function model of a system can be identified from experimentally obtained input-output data. Generally the identification methods can be considered to be a type of curve fitting, where the transfer function is fitted to the available data in some optimal manner.

 The methods may be based on frequency response (sinusoidal input), step response (step input), impulse response (pulse input; pulse of small width approximating an impulse), or the response to more general inputs.

(b) Free-body diagram : The displacement x(t) and velocity v(t) are state variables. A systematic way of setting up dynamical equations for massspring damper systems is to draw a free-body diagram. In a free-body diagram, each mass is isolated from the rest of the system: forces acting on each free-body are due to the rest of the system, including external forces. The free-bode mass moves under the action of the resultant force.

State Variable Models

Consider the resistance inductance (RLC) network The input is a voltage source. The desired output is usually the voltages and currents associated with various elements of the network. The information at time t can be obtained if the voltage across the capacitor and the current through the inductor of the network at that time are known, in addition to the values of the input.

 The voltage e(t) across the capacitor and the current i(t) through the inductor thus constitute a set of characterizing variables of the network. The selection of characterizing variables is linked with the energy concept. At time t, energy stored in the capacitor is Ce2(t) and energy stored in the inductor is Li2(t). Dynamical changes in characterizing variables are caused by the redistribution of energy within the network. The number of independent energy storage possibilities thus equals the number of characterizing variables of the network. The values of the characterizing variables at time t describe the state of the state of the network at that time; these variables are therefore called state variables of the network.

 Network analysis usually requires setting up of dynamical equations (using KVL and KCL) in terms of rates of change of capacitor voltages and inductor currents. The solution of these equations describes the state of the network at time t. Desired output information is then obtained from the state using an algebraic relation.