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An application-specific issue.
Physical storage of H2
Compressed Cryogenically liquified Metal Hydride (sponge) Carbon nanofibers
Compressed
Volumetrically and Gravimetrically inefficient, but the technology is simple, so by far the most common in small to medium sized applications. 3500, 5000, 10,000 psi variants.
Liquid (Cryogenic)
Compressed, chilled, filtered, condensed Boils at 22K (-251 C). Gravimetrically and volumetrically efficient Slow waste evaporation but very costly to compress Kept at 1 atm or just slightly over.
Carbon Nanofibers
Complex structure presents a large surface area for hydrogen to dissolve into Early claim set the standard of 65 kgH2/m2 and 6.5 % by weight as a goal to beat The claim turned out not to be repeatable Research continues
Methanol
Broken down by reformer, yields CO, CO2, and H2 gas. Very common hydrogen transport method Distribution infrastructure exists same as gasoline
Ammonia
Slightly higher volumetric efficiency than methanol Must be catalyzed at 800-900 deg. C for hydrogen release Toxic Usually transported as a liquid, at 8 atm. Some Ammonia remains in the catalyzed hydrogen stream, forming salts in PEM cells that destroy the cells Many drawbacks, thus Methanol considered to be a better solution
Powerball company, makes small (3 mm) coated NaH spheres. Spheres cut and exposed to water as needed H2 gas released Produces hydroxide solution waste
Sodium Borohydrate
Sodium Borohydrate is the most popular of many hydrate solutions Solution passed through a catalyst to release H2 Commonly a one-way process (sodium metaborate must be returned if recycling is desired.) Some alternative hydrates are too expensive or toxic The Millennium Cell company uses Sodium Borohydrate technology
Amminex
Essentially an Ammonia storage method Ammonia stored in a salt matrix, very stable Ammonia separated & catalyzed for use Likely to have non-catalyzed ammonia in hydrogen stream Ammonia poisoning contraindicates use with PEM fuel cells, but compatible with alkaline fuel cells.
Amminex
High density, but relies on ammonia production for fuel. Represents an improvement on ammonia storage, which still must be catalyzed. Ammonia process still problematic.
So far, just a computer simulation. Compound discovered via exploration of Nitrogen/Boron/Hydrogen compounds (i.e. similar to Ammonia Borane) Thermodynamic properties point towards spontaneous hydrogen re-uptake would make DADB reusable (vs. other borohydrates)
Isreli research effort utilizes solar furnace to produce pure Zinc Zinc powder can be easily transported Zinc can be combined with water to produce H2 Alternatively could be made into Zinc-Air batteries (at higher energy efficiency)
SafeHydrogen, LLC Concept proven with Lithium Hydride, now working on magnesium hydride slurry Like a PowerBall slurry Hydroxide slurry to be re-collected to be recycled Competitive efficiency to Liquid H2
.9 .1 - .2 9.1
Must reclaim used slurry (numbers for plain diboraneand sodium borohydride, should be similar)
unsure
US DOE goal
9.0
.081
Compressed Hydrogen is one of the least efficient both volumetrically and gravimetrically, but is currently the most common (because its a simple solution).
Credits
http://psych.ucsc.edu/faculty/kg/H2Spirit/images2.htm http://www.photos.gov.ca.gov/essay20.html http://www.amminex.com/index_files/Page344.htm http://www.h2interpower.de/deutsch/produkte/zubehoer.html#mhs20 http://www.pnl.gov/news/notes/transportation05.stm http://www.safehydrogen.com/technology.html http://www.isracast.com/tech_news/090905_tech.htm http://www.h2fc.com/industry/infra/storage.shtml Fuel Cell Systems Explained, by James Larminie and Andrew Dicks