Linear Systems Khosrow Ghadiri - EE Dept.

SJSU 1
Signals and Systems
Linear System Theory
EE 112 - Lecture Eight
Signal classification
Signals and
Systems
Khosrow Ghadiri - EE
Dept. SJSU
2
Signal
A signal is a pattern of variation that carry
information.
Signals are represented mathematically as a function
of one or more independent variable
A picture is brightness as a function of two spatial
variables, x and y.
In this course signals involving a single independent
variable, generally refer to as a time, t are
considered. Although it may not represent time in
specific application
A signal is a real-valued or scalar-valued function of
an independent variable t.
Signals and
Systems
Khosrow Ghadiri - EE
Dept. SJSU
3
Example of signals
Electrical signals like voltages, current and
EM field in circuit
Acoustic signals like audio or speech signals
(analog or digital)
Video signals like intensity variation in an
image
Biological signal like sequence of bases in
gene
Noise which will be treated as unwanted
signal

Signals and
Systems
Khosrow Ghadiri - EE
Dept. SJSU
4
Signal classification
Continuous-time and Discrete-time
Energy and Power
Real and Complex
Periodic and Non-periodic
Analog and Digital
Even and Odd
Deterministic and Random

Signals and
Systems
Khosrow Ghadiri - EE
Dept. SJSU
5
A continuous-time signal
Continuous-time signal x(t), the independent variable, t is
Continuous-time. The signal itself needs not to be continuous.
Signals and
Systems
Khosrow Ghadiri - EE
Dept. SJSU
6
A continuous-time signal
x=0:0.05:5;
y=sin(x.^2);
plot(x,y);
Signals and
Systems
Khosrow Ghadiri - EE
Dept. SJSU
7
A piecewise continuous-time signal
A piecewise continuous-time signal





0; 0 10
1; 10 20
()
1; 20 25
2; 25 30
t
t
xt
t
t
s s

< s

s s

< s

Signals and
Systems
Khosrow Ghadiri - EE
Dept. SJSU
8
A discrete-time signal
A discrete signal is defined only at discrete instances. Thus,
the independent variable has discrete values only.
[ ] x n
Signals and
Systems
Khosrow Ghadiri - EE
Dept. SJSU
9
Mathlab file
x = 0:0.1:4;
y = sin(x.^2).*exp(-x);
stem(x,y)
Signals and
Systems
Khosrow Ghadiri - EE
Dept. SJSU
10
Sampling
A discrete signal can be derived from a continuous-time signal
by sampling it at a uniform rate.
If denotes the sampling period and denotes an integer that
may assume positive and negative values,
Sampling a continuous-time signal x(t) at time yields a
sample of value
For convenience, a discrete-time signal is represented by a
sequence of numbers:
We write


Such a sequence of numbers is referred to as a time series.
t
t nt =
( ) x nt
[] ( ) xn xn n t =
n
Signals and
Systems
Khosrow Ghadiri - EE
Dept. SJSU
11
A piecewise discrete-time signal
A piecewise discrete-time signal
| |
0; 0 10
1; 10 20
1; 20 25
2; 25 30
n
n
xn
n
n
s s

< s

s s

< s

Signals and
Systems
Khosrow Ghadiri - EE
Dept. SJSU
12
Energy and Power Signals
X(t) is a continuous power signal if:

X[n] is a discrete power signal if:

X(t) is a continuous energy signal if:

X[n] is a discrete energy signal if:
()
2
1
0lim
2
T
T T
xt dt
T

< <
}
||
2
1
0lim
21
N
N
nN
xn
N

=
< <
+

()
2
0 xt dt

< <
}
||
2
0
n
xn

=
< <

Signals and
Systems
Khosrow Ghadiri - EE
Dept. SJSU
13
Power and Energy in a Physical System
The instantaneous power


The total energy


The average power
() ()() ()
2
1
Pt vtit vt
R
= =
() ()() ()
2 2 2
1 1 1
2
1
t t t
t t t
Ptdt vtitdt vtdt
R
= =
} } }
() ()
2 2
1 1
2
21 21
1 11
t t
t t
Ptdt vtdt
tt tt R
=

} }
Signals and
Systems
Khosrow Ghadiri - EE
Dept. SJSU
14
Power and Energy
By definition, the total energy over the time interval in a
continuous-time signal is:


denote the magnitude of the (possibly complex) number
The time average power


By definition, the total energy over the time interval in a
discrete-time signal is:


The time average power

1 2
t t t < <
( )
x t
()
2
1
2
t
t
E xt dt =
}
( )
x t
( )
x t
()
2
1
2
2 1
1
t
t
P xt dt
t t
=

}
2 1
n n n s s
| |
x n
| |
2
1
2
n
n n
E xn
=
=

||
2
1
2
2 1
1
1
n
nn
P xn
nn
=
=
+

Signals and
Systems
Khosrow Ghadiri - EE
Dept. SJSU
15
Power and Energy
Example 1:
The signal is given below is energy or power signal.
Explain.







This signal is energy signal
()
1
2
2
0
1
1 1 1 9
limlim3lim9lim0
0 2 2 2 2
T
T T T T T
Pxtdt dt t
T T TT

= = ===
} }
()
2 2
1
0
1
399
0
T
T
Extdt dt t

= = ==
} }
( )
x t
( ) x t
3
0 1
t
Signals and
Systems
Khosrow Ghadiri - EE
Dept. SJSU
16
Power and Energy
Example 2:
The signal is given below is energy or power signal.
Explain.








This signal is energy signal

| |
x n
||
2
1
3
2
2
0
1 1 27
lim lim3lim0
21 21 21
n
N N N
nn
P xn
N N N

=
= = ==
+ + +

||
2
1
3
2
2
0
327
n
nn
E xn
=
= = =

| | x n
3
0 1
n
2
Signals and
Systems
Khosrow Ghadiri - EE
Dept. SJSU
17
Real and Complex
A value of a complex signal is a complex number



The complex conjugate, of the signal is;



Magnitude or absolute value


Phase or angle
( )
x t
()()()
() {}() () {}()
1 2
1 2
Where 1Re Im
xtxtjxt
j xtxt xtxt
=+
= = =
( )
x t
( )
x t
-
()() ()
() {}()() () {} ()()
1 2
1 1
Re Im
2 2
xtxtjxt
xt xtxt xt xtxt
j
-
- -
=
( ( = + =

() () () ()()
2 2
1 2
1
2
xt xtxt xtxt
-
= +=
() () ()
1
2 1
tan xt xt xt

=
Signals and
Systems
Khosrow Ghadiri - EE
Dept. SJSU
18
Periodic and Non-periodic
A signal or is a periodic signal if


Here, and are fundamental period, which is the smallest
positive values when
Example:





( )
x t
| |
x n
()( )
||| |
0
0
; , anyinteger
; , anyinteger
xtxtmTtm
xnxnmNnm
=+ =
=+ =
o
T
o
N
1 m =
0
()cos( ); ;
2
o
xtAt t f
e
eu
t
= +<<=
0 0 0 0
0
0
( ) cos([ ] ) cos( )
2
; 0,1,2......
xtTA tmT A t
T m
e u eu
t
e
+= + += +
= =
Signals and
Systems
Khosrow Ghadiri - EE
Dept. SJSU
19
Analog and Digital
Digital signal is discrete-time signal whose values belong
to a defined set of real numbers


Binary signal is digital signal whose values are 1 or 0


Analog signal is a non-digital signal
1 2
{ , ,..., }
N
a a a
[] ()01;
n
xnxt or n = =
[] () ;1
n i
xnxt a i N = = ss
Signals and
Systems
Khosrow Ghadiri - EE
Dept. SJSU
20
Even and Odd


Even Signals
The continuous-time signal /discrete-time signal
is an even signal if it satisfies the condition

Even signals are symmetric about the vertical axis
Odd Signals
The signal is said to be an odd signal if it satisfies the
condition

Odd signals are anti-symmetric (asymmetric) about
the time origin
() ( ); xt x t t =
() (); [] []; xt xt txnxnn ==
( ) x t
| |
x n
[] [ ]; xn xn n =
Signals and
Systems
Khosrow Ghadiri - EE
Dept. SJSU
21
Even and Odd signals:Facts

Product of 2 even or 2 odd signals is an even signal
Product of an even and an odd signal is an odd signal
Any signal (continuous and discrete) can be expressed
as sum of an even and an odd signal:

() () (); [] [] []
() ( ) () ( )
() ; ()
2 2
[] [ ] [] [ ]
[] ; []
2 2
e o e o
e o
e o
xt xt xt xn xn xn
xt xt xt xt
xt xt
xn xn xn xn
xn xn
= + = +
+
= =
+
= =
Signals and
Systems
Khosrow Ghadiri - EE
Dept. SJSU
22
Complex-Valued Signal Symmetry
For a complex-valued signal

is said to be conjugate symmetric if it satisfies the
condition

where

is the real part and is the imaginary part;

is the square root of -1
1 2
() () () xt xt jxt = +
*
( ) () x t x t =
1 2
*() () () xt xt jxt =
1
( ) x t
2
( ) x t
j
Signals and
Systems
Khosrow Ghadiri - EE
Dept. SJSU
23
Deterministic and Random signal
A signal is deterministic whose future values can be
predicted accurately.
Example:
A signal is random whose future values can NOT be
predicted with complete accuracy
Random signals whose future values can be statistically
determined based on the past values are correlated
signals.
Random signals whose future values can NOT be
statistically determined from past values are
uncorrelated signals and are more random than
correlated signals.

() sin xt A t =
Signals and
Systems
Khosrow Ghadiri - EE
Dept. SJSU
24
Deterministic and Random signal(contd)
Two ways to describe the randomness
of the signal are:
Entropy:
This is the natural meaning and
mostly used in system performance
measurement.
Correlation:
This is useful in signal processing by
directly using correlation functions.
Signals and
Systems
Khosrow Ghadiri - EE
Dept. SJSU
25
Taylor series and Euler relation
General Taylor series


Expanding sin and cos



Expanding exponential




Euler relation
()()()()()()
()
()() 2
0
...
!
n
n
n
faxa
fxfafaxafaxa
n

' '' =+++=

3 5
sin ...
3! 5!
x x
xx =+
2 4
cos 1 ...
2! 4!
x x
x=+
2 3 4 5
1 ...
2!3!4!5!
x
xxxx
e x =++++++
()()()()
2 3 4 5
1 ...
2! 3! 4! 5!
jx
jxjxjxjx
e jx =++++++
23 35
1 ... ...cossin
2!3! 3!5!
jx
xx xx
e jx xjx
| || |
=+++=+
| |
\ .\ .
Signals and
Systems
Khosrow Ghadiri - EE
Dept. SJSU
26
Example
The signal and shown below constitute the real and
imaginary parts of a complex-valued signal .
What form of symmetry does have?









Answer
is conjugate symmetric.
1
( ) x t
2
( ) x t
( ) x t
( ) x t
( ) x t
2
T

2
T
0
1
( ) x t