Siobhan Parish

Structure of the atom A nucleon is the name for a proton or Mass Number neutron in the nucleus

Atomic Number

/C Proton Neutron Electron

/Charge of proton 0 -1

/kg

/Mass of proton

+1.6 x 10-19 1 0 -1.6 x 10-19

1.67 x 10-27 1 1.67 x 10-27 1 9.11 x 10-31 0.0005

Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons and different numbers of neutrons Specific Charge S.C. = Charge (C) Mass (kg)
Charge depends on how many electrons and protons are lost!

= Ckg-1
63 Cu, 29

Electron has the largest specific charge

A copper atom loses two electrons to form of the ion formed? Charge = (2 x (1.6 x 10-19)) = 3. 2 x 10-19 Mass = (63 x (1.67 x 10-27)) = 1.05 x 10-25

what is the specific charge

3. 2 x 10-19 1.05 x 10-25

= 3. 04 x 106 Ckg-1

The strong nuclear force

The strong nuclear force (SNF) overcomes the electrostatic force of repulsion in the nucleus to keep the protons and neutrons together Range of SNF is about 3-5fm; about the same as the diameter of a small nucleus. Electrostatic force between two charged particles has infinite range Has same effect between two protons as it does between two neutrons and a proton and a neutron Attractive from 3-0.5fm. Smaller than 0.5 it becomes repulsive to stop nucleons being pushed into each other

This shows how the SNF varies separation between two protons or neutrons
Force

Attract Repel

Electrostatic force

Distance from centre

Strong Nuclear Force

Nuclear force field for neutrons and protons. Electrostatic force field for protons.

Radioactive decay 1. Alpha radiation Nucleus emits an 4 particle and forms a new 2 nucleus 0 2. Beta radiation -1 particle created in the nucleus and instantly emitted. Neutron in nucleus changes to a proton It is a fast moving electron. An antineutrino with no charge is also emitted
Because neutron in the nucleus changes into a proton the atomic number reduces by 1 but nucleon number stays the same. This means product nucleus is a different element.

particle
3.

- particle

Gamma radiation radiation is electromagnetic radiation emitted by an unstable nucleus. It can pass though thick metal plates, it has no mass and no charge. Its emitted by a nucleus with too much energy following an alpha or beta emission

= c f
Electromagnetic waves An e-m wave consists of an electric wave and a magnetic wave which travel together and vibrate: At right angles to each other and to the direction they are travelling Electric field In phase with each other
Magnetic field

c= 3.00 x 108 ms-1

Type

Radio >0.1m

Micro 0.1m1.mm

Infrared Visible 1mm 700nm 700nm400nm

UV

X-Rays

Gamma <1nm

range

400nm <1nm - 1nm

E= hf
h= 6.67 x 10-34 Js

E-m waves are emitted by a charged particle when it loses energy. This can happen when: A fast-moving electron is stopped, slows down or changes direction An electron in a shell of an atom moves to a shell of lower energy E-m waves are emitted as short bursts of waves, each time in a different direction. These are called photons. Einstein assumed photon energy is in accordance with the above equation.

Laser power = nhf

Laser power A laser consists of photons of the same frequency n is the number of photons in the beam passing a fixed point per second

Antimatter When antimatter and matter meet they destroy each other and emit radiation + emission takes place when a proton changes to a neutron in an unstable nucleus X Y + + + Positron-emitting isotopes dont occur naturally

Diracs theory of antiparticles predicted that for every particle, there is a corresponding antiparticle that: Annihilates the particle and itself if they meet. This converts total mass to photons Has exactly the same rest mass as the particle Has exactly the opposite charge to the particle He also predicted the opposite process of PAIR PRODUCTION. Photon with sufficient energy could change into a particle-antiparticle pair which would then separate from each other

Annihilation:
Photon

antiparticle

particle Photon

Pair production:
particle Photon
antiparticle

One electron volt is the energy transferred when an electron is moved through a potential difference of 1 volt 1 MeV = 1.60 x 10-13J Annihilation- when a particle and antiparticle meet and their mass is converted to into radiation energy. TWO photons produced (1 photon would only take momentum away, not allowed because no outside forces act

E0= hfmin

Minimum energy of each photon is given by equating the energy of the two photons to the rest energy of the positron and of the electron. In pair production a photon creates a particle and an antiparticle and vanishes in the process. We can calculate the minimum energy and frequency that a photon must have to produce a particle-antiparticle pair

2E0= hfmin

Ionising particles leave a visible trail of liquid droplets when they pass through a cloud chamber With a magnetic field applied to the chamber, the trail of a charged particle would bend in the field A positive particle would be deflected by the field in the opposite direction to a negative particle The slower it went the more it would bend This is how the positron was discovered

The electromagnetic force When two objects interact they exert and equal and opposite force on each other. Momentum is transferred by these forces if no other forces act on them The electromagnetic force between two charged objects is due to the exchange of virtual photons
Photon transfers momentum so they repel each other p p p p Electromagnetic force between two protons

Strong nuclear force holds the neutrons and protons in a nucleus together. Doesnt cause a neutron to change into a proton in - decay, or a proton into a neutron in + decay These changes cant be due to the electromagnetic force because the neutron is uncharged The force must be weaker than the SNF because otherwise it would affect stable nuclei. Referred to as the weak nuclear force

In both beta decays a new particle and antiparticle are created These ARENT corresponding. One is a positron/electron and one is a neutrino/antineutrino A neutrino can interact with a neutron to make it change into a proton. Electron is emitted as a result Antineutrinos can cause a proton to change into a neutron, positron is also emitted

The interactions are due to the exchange of particles called W bosons. Unlike photons they exchange particles Have a non-zero rest mass Have a very short range, no more than about 0.001fm Are positively or negatively charged
p n Neutron-neutrino interaction n p + W+ Protonantineutrino interaction

W-

Beta decay The W- boson decays into a beta- particle and an antineutrino The W+ boson decays into a beta+ particle and a neutrino
Wn W+

p n

decay

+ decay

Electron capture A proton in a proton-rich nucleus can turn into a neutron as a result of interacting through a weak interaction with an innershell electron The same change can happen when a proton and an electron collide at high speed
n W+ p eElectron capture

Matter and antimatter

Baryons K Mesons Decay

Interactions Hadrons
Strong Weak

mesons Leptons e+, ee+, e +, + , Muons Electrons

Baryons , , ,

Mesons k , k , k0 + , , 0
+ Weak Muons have a rest mass over 200 times greater than an electron

Particle
Proton, p Neutron, n Electron, eNeutrino, Muon, Pi meson, +, , 0 K meson, + k , k , k0

Charge
+1 0 -1 0 -1 +1, 0, -1 +1, 0, -1

Baryon number
+1 +1 0 0 0 0 0

Lepton number
0 0 +1 +1 +1 0 0

Interaction
Strong, weak decay, em Strong, weak decay Weak, em Weak Weak, em Strong, em Strong, em

Baryon and lepton numbers are conserved in interactions

Effects of cosmic rays Protons or small nuclei ejected from the sun When they collide with atoms in our atmosphere lots of new particles are created 2 mesons created by cosmic rays are the pi meson or the k meson Mesons dont have antiparticles

Electron scattering experiments indicated that protons are made up of 3 smaller particles
Quark Antiquark

UP Charge, Q Strangeness, S
DOWN Charge, Q Strangeness, S STRANGE Charge, Q Strangeness, S

u +2/3 0
d -1/3 0 s -1/3 -1

u -2/3 0
d +1/3 0 s +1/3 +1

Baryons have 3 quarks Mesons have 2 quarks

Hadrons

Baryons p n uud udd

Antibaryons p
n

uud
udd Mesons Pions (Pi mesons)

Kaons have strangeness because they are created by strong interactions and decay through weak interactions

+ ud k+ us

0 uu dd ss Kaons (K mesons) k0 sd ds

du k su

Energy 2 Includes rest mass where E= . Applies to all interactions Charge Applies to all interactions Lepton number Applies to all interactions Baryon number All interactions Strangeness Only in strong interactions

Photo electric effect occurs when em radiation falls on a metal plate and electrons are emitted from the metal surface
Ultraviolet radiation Zinc plate

Gold leaf electroscope - -

When the em radiation is above the threshold frequency (has a minimum energy) the of a negatively charged electroscope falls DOESNT fit with wave theory of em radiation Wave theory predicts electron emission should take place at any wavelength/frequency as the electrons in metal absorb the energy until they have enough to escape BUT electrons only absorb a single packet of energy; if it isnt enough it wont escape

Wave theory should also predict that it would take longer for electrons to be released at low intensity radiation than it would at high intensity: regardless of the wavelength However, electrons are released immediately whatever the intensity

E= + KE
Energy from photons must equal energy to release electron plus any extra KE the electron possesses. Work function, energy required for electron to escape from the surface of a metal, different for different metals Threshold frequency minimum frequency of the radiation required to release electrons from the surface

= hfmin

I = ne
Electric current is the rate of flow of charge, where n is the number of electrons passing a point per second and e is the charge on an electron
Vacuum Glass tube Incident lightfrequency can be changed Anode Photocathode (emits electrons when light above f-min
A

Micro ammeter

The photocathode will emit electrons once the energy/frequency of incident light is sufficient Electrons travel towards the anode Electrons are attracted towards the anode and flow back round to the cathode establishing a current Size of current is a measure of the number of electrons released by the photocathode

KEmax = hf -
Once f-min for incident light/radiation is met: - Number of electrons released per second = I/e - Current is proportion to intensity of light - KE of electrons is independent of intensity
Photocell can measure the KE by putting a battery in the opposite direction and stopping the current. KE increases as frequency increases
KE Gradient = h f

fmin

Ionisation the creation of a charged atom (an ion) Measuring ionisation energy

Anode (+) A Ammeter Electrons Gas at low pressure Filament cathode (-) heated Variable resistor

Voltmeter

Electrons boiled off in the heated cathode Attracted to + anode Accelerate through the gas At a certain speed they will knock electrons out of the atom- ionise These electrons attracted to anode Current increases

One volt is the potential difference that will give one coulomb of charge one joule of energy when it is accelerated between two points through IV Energy given to each electron is its charge x potential difference between the electrodes When the current increases this is the ionisation energy, eV

If gas atoms do not receive enough energy to become ionised they may, for certain energies of colliding electrons, absorb their energy Energies are called excitation energy and the electrons in the atom move to a higher energy level (further from the nucleus)

E in x 100 E out
Ground state electrons have minimum energy for frequency of photons Electrons can emit photons and photons can excite the electrons in an atom Fluorescent tube Mercury atoms collide ionisation & excitation De-excitation UV photons emitted Photons absorbed by fluorescent coating Coating de-excited Visible photons emitted

hf = E1 E2

Infrared lowest frequency UV highest frequency A hot filament produces a set of discrete lines in different colours Each line is only one colour and therefore one frequency Photons are produced by de-exciting electrons as they move to lower energy levels

The difference in energy between two levels is the energy of the photon emitted during deexcitation This assumes that n2 is lower in energy than n1 Helium was identified in sunlight from the absorption line spectrum & as the alpha particles from their line spectra

Light as a wave (diffraction) When the gap is about a wavelength straight lines become curved. The wavelength doesnt change Light as a particle (photoelectric effect) E=hf Electrons as particles Can be deflected by a magnetic flux

Electrons as waves (diffraction) Thin metal foil acts like a diffraction grating and the narrow beam of electrons will produce a pattern like waves through a small gap
Electron beam

Patten of rings on the screen NOT evenly spaced

Screen

= h p

p is momentum (mass x velocity) of the electron, the electron appears to have a wavelength. If the electrons are given more energy, f is larger and is smaller: diffraction rings are smaller Electrons energy determines which shell it occupies because circumference must be a whole number of wavelengths This is the de Broglie wavelength

To make a current pass round a circuit there must be a source of potential difference Electric current is the rate of flow of charge in the wire or component Current is due to the passage of charged particles, charge carriers In metals these are conduction electrons. Move about inside the metal repeating colliding with each other and the fixed positive ions in the metal When a current passes through a salt solution the charge is carried by ions; charged atoms/molecules

Q = I t

Electrons flow from positive to negative Unit of current is the amp defined in terms of the magnetic force between two parallel wires when they carry the same current Unit of charge is the coulomb equal to the charge flow in one second when the current is one amp

In an insulator electrons are attached an atom and cannot move away from the atom. When a voltage is applied across an insulator no current passes because no electrons move In a metallic conductor most electrons are attached to atoms but some are not; these are the charge carriers. When voltage is applied conduction electrons are attracted towards positive terminal In a semiconductor number of charge carriers increases with an increase of temperature. Resistance decreases with increased temperature

Potential difference is the work done (energy transferred) per unit charge. 1 volt is 1 joule per coulomb V = W/Q The emf of a source of electricity is the electrical energy produced per unit charge passing through the source

Potential difference is the work done (energy transferred) per unit charge. 1 volt is 1 joule per coulomb V = W/Q The emf of a source of electricity is the electrical energy produced per unit charge passing through the source Energy is transferred to other parts of the circuit and some may be dissipated in the source due to the internal resistance

An electric current has a heating effect when it passes through a component with resistance. It also has a magnetic effect, this is used in loudspeakers and electric motors Electric Heaters Work done is transferred as thermal energy Charge carriers repeatedly collide with atoms in the device and transfer energy to them Atoms vibrate more and resistor becomes hotter

Electric Motor Work done on the motor is transferred as kinetic energy of the motor The charge carriers are electrons that need to be forced through the wires of the spinning motor coil against the opposing force on the electrons Due to the motors magnetic field

Loudspeaker Work done is transferred as sound energy Electrons have to be forced through the wires of the vibrating loudspeaker coil against the force on them Due to the loudspeaker magnet

A component or device that has a potential difference across its terminals and a current passing through it. In time t: The charge flow through it, Q = It The work done by the charge carriers, W = QV = (It)V = IVt

W = IVt

The energy transfer, E in the component is equal to the work done, W

Power = energy/time

P = IV

The unit of power is the watt, W One volt is equal to one watt per ampere

V R= I

Resistance is measuring the difficulty of passing a current through a component. It is caused by repeated collisions between the charge carriers in the material with each other and the fixed positive ions The resistance of any component is the pd across the component divided by the current through it The unit of resistance is the ohm, , its equal 1 volt per ampere

A circuit to measure the resistance of a resistor Ammeter must be in series with resistor so the same current flows through them Voltmeter must be parallel to the resistor Variable resistor adjusts the pd and the current
Variable resistor

Resistor V

A resistor graph, pd against current, is a straight line straight through the origin Resistance is equal to the gradient Ohms law: The pd across a metallic conductor is proportional to the current through it, provided the physical conditions do not change An ohmic conductor graph looks like this:
Potential dif, V

Current, A

If the current and pd measurements for an ohmic conductor are plotted with current on the y-axis and pd on the x-axis then the gradient of the graph will be 1/R

RA = L
Resistivity For a conductor of length, L and crosssectional area A, the resistance R is: Proportional to L Inversely proportional to A The unit of resistivity is the ohm metre, m Resistivity is resistance per unit length x crosssectional area

Superconductivity A superconductor is a wire/device made of a material that has no resistivity or resistance at, and below, a critical temperature When a current passes through it there is no pd across it. The current has no heating effect Superconductors are used to make highpower electromagnets. They can transfer electrical energy without wasting energy

Cell source of electrical energy The symbol for an indicator or any light source is the same A diode allows current in one direction only. A light emitting diode emits light when it conducts; the forward direction The resistance of a thermistor decreased with increasing temperature The resistance of an LDR decreases with increasing light intensity

To measure the variation of current with pd for a component use either: A potential divider to vary the pd from zero A variable resistor to vary the current to a minimum
A X V Using a variable resistor A X V Using a potential divider

Advantage of a potential divider Current through the component and the pd across it can be reduced to zero Graphs A wire gives a straight line of gradient 1/R Lamp gives curve of decreasing gradient Thermistor of constant temp gives straight line. Higher temp = greater gradient
I I

I High temp Low temp

Wire

Lamp

Thermistor

The diode To measure characteristics of the diode measurements are made in the forward and reverse direction
I

0.6

Resistance and temperature Resistance of a metal increases with increase of temperature Positive ions in the conductor vibrate more when its temperature is increased Charge carriers cannot pass through the metal as easily when a pd is applied A metal has a positive temperature coefficient

Resistance of an intrinsic semiconductor decreases with increase of temperature Number of charge carriers (conduction electrons) increases with temperature Therefore intrinsic semiconductors have a negative temperature coefficient % change of resistance per kelvin change of temperature is greater than a metal Thermistors are often used as the temperature-sensitive component in a sensor

1.

2.

At any junction in a circuit, the total current leaving the junction is equal to the total current entering the junction The current: - Entering a component is the same as the current leaving a component COMPONENTS DONT USE UP CURRENT - Passing through two or more components in series is the same through each component RATE OF FLOW OF CHARGE THROUGH EACH COMPONENT IS THE SAME AT ANY INSTANT

The pd between two points in a circuit is the energy transfer per coulomb of charge that flows from one point to the other If the charge carriers lose energy, the pd is a potential drop If the charge carriers gain energy (by passing through a battery/cell), the pd is a potential rise equal to the pd across the battery or cells terminals

1.

2. 3.

For 2 or more components in series, the total pd is equal to the sum of pds across each component The pd across components in parallel is the same. For a complete loop of a circuit, the sum of the emfs round the loop is equal to the sum of the potential drops round the loop

Resistors in series Pass the same current Total pd is equal to the sum of the individual pds Resistors in parallel 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 etc.

P= I2R
Resistance heating Power supplied to a component = IV The energy per second transferred to the component as thermal energy = I2R If the component heats up, the temperature rise depends on - Power supplied - Rate of heat transfer to surroundings Energy transfer in time t = I2Rt Energy transfer per second to the component doesnt depend on the direction of the current

E = Q
Internal resistance of a source is the loss of potential difference per unit current in the source when current passes through it Emf of the source is the electrical energy per unit charge that the source produces The terminal pd is less than the emf. The difference is due to the internal resistance of the source When a cell of emf , internal resistance r, is connected to an external resistor R the cell emf is:
= IR + Ir

Power Power supplied by the cell in the equation = IR + Ir becomes: I = I2R + I2r The power delivered to R is: 2 R+r 2 Maximum power is delivered to the load when the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance of the source Power delivered

Load resistance, R

The pd across the terminals of a cell can be measured by connecting a high-resistance voltmeter directly across the terminals The current is changed by adjusting a variable resistor A lamp or fixed resistor limits the maximum current that can pass through the cell Ammeter is used to measure the cell current

Graph and circuit on next slide

Cell terminal V r

A
Pd, V

emf

Gradient = internal resistance Current, A

V= - Ir
As terminal pd decreases the current increases This is due to the lost pd increases as the current increases - Terminal pd is equal to the cell emf at zero current because lost pd is zero at zero current - Graph is straight line with negative gradient r can be calculated by the equation:

V1 V2 r= I1 I2

Circuits with cells in series Current through the cells is calculated by dividing the net emf by the total resistance If cells are connected in the opposite direction then the net emf is the difference between the two Total internal resistance is the sum of all the individual internal resistances

Circuits with identical cells in parallel When there are n identical cells in parallel, the current through cell is: I/n (I is the total current supplied by the cells) Ir The lost pd in each cell = (this is the same n as the terminal pd) Cells act as a source of emf and internal resistance

Diodes in circuits Diodes have an infinite resistance in the reverse direction or at pds less than 0.6V in the forward direction

Consists of 2+ resistors in series with each other and with a source of fixed potential difference A potential divider can be used to: Supply a pd which is fixed at any value between zero and the source pd Supply a variable pd Supply a pd that varies with physical conditions such as temperature or pressure

V 1 R1 = V 2 R2

If two resistors are in series connected to a source of fixed pd V0 Total resistance of the combination = R1 + R2 The current, I, through the resistors is given by pd across the resistors/total resistance The ratio of the pds across each resistor is equal to the resistance ratio of the two resistors

Supplying a variable pd Source pd is connected to a fixed length of uniform resistance wire A sliding contact on the wire can then be moved along the wire giving a variable pd between the contact and one end of the wire Variable potential divider can be used to: Change loudness of sound from a loudspeaker Vary brightness of a light bulb

Sensor circuits Produce an output pd which changes as a result of a physical variable (temperature, light) 1. Temperature sensors consist of a potential divider made using a thermistor and a variable resistor 2. Light sensors use a LDR and a variable resistor. If light intensity increases, the resistance and the pd fall

An alternating current is one that repeatedly reverses its direction The frequency of an ac is the number of cycles it passes through each second The peak value of an alternating current is the maximum current which is the same in either direction The peak-to-peak value is twice the peak value Voltage
Time

Observing alternating current 1. Use an oscilloscope to display the waveform - Increasing the output pd from the signal generator makes the oscilloscope taller (larger ac pd) - Increasing f increases the number of cycles on the screen 2. Connect signal generator to a torch lamp and make f low enough so you can see the brightness of the lamp vary

Heating effect of an alternating current The heating effect of an electric current varies according to the square of the current Electrical power, P, supplied to the heater for a current I is given by IV or I2R At peak current I0 maximum power is supplied At zero current zero power is supplied

For a sinusoidal current, the mean power over a full cycle is half the peak power The equation for this is I02R The direct current that would give the same power, and therefore heating effect, as the mean power is the root mean square value of the ac in the same resistor

Irms

1 = I0 2

Anode Filament Y1

Screen

X1

Y2 + X2 behind X1

Spot

Anode Filament

Y1 X1

Screen

Y2

Spot X2 behind X1

Consists of an electron tube and control circuits Electron gun emits electrons in a beam towards a fluorescent screen- light is emitted from the electron on the screen The position on the screen is affected by the pd across either set of deflecting plates If pd is across x-plate then deflected horizontally If pd is across y-plate then deflected vertically Displacement is proportional to pd applied

Anode Filament

Y1 X1

Screen

Y2

Spot X2 behind X1

To display waveform: X-plates are connected to the time base of the circuit which makes the spot move at a constant speed left to right, it can be calibrated in milli or microseconds The pd displayed is connected to the y-plates so the spot moves up and down; this is when the waveform is traced Y-input calibrated in volts per centimetre

1.

2.

3.

To measure peak pd: observe the waveform from top to bottom- the amplitude is half of this. Look at what the y-gain or y-sensitivity is set at and then times the y-gain by the amplitude To measure frequency: Measure the time period, T, of the waveform. Calculate the frequency as 1/T To measure T: Measure the distance of one full cycle and times by the time base

Vertical displacement does not change for constant pd The spot traces a horizontal line above or below the 0 pd line depending on whether the applied pd is positive or negative Direct pd can be calculated by measuring the vertical displacement of the line and the ygain Oscilloscopes have a high input resistance so the current taken from the circuit is negligible

Measuring the speed of ultrasound Time base of an oscilloscope can be used to trigger ultrasonic transmitter so it sends out a short pulse If the receiver is applied to the y-input of the oscilloscope the waveform can be seen on the screen By measuring the horizontal on the screen from the leading edge of the pulse to the start of the spots sweep the travel time of the pulse from the transmitter to the receiver can be determined