Mendelian Genetics, Plant Sexual Reproduction and Other Stuff

R. N. Trigiano, Professor EPP 17 January 2012

Alternation of Generations

Mitosis and Meiosis

Mendelian Genetics

Sexual Reproduction in Plants

ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS
DEFINITIONS:

Diploid: Having two sets of chromomosomes or 2N the sporophyte phase of plants. 2N = 2X = 22 (Flowering dogwood) Haploid: Having one set of chromosomes or N the gametophyte phase of plants. N = X=11 (Flowering dogwood)
Polyploid: Having more than two sets of chromosomes 2N = 6X = 54 sporophyte; gametophyte N = 3X= 27 (Chrysanthemum)

How is Alternation of Generations Accomplished?

Mitosis (1 cell Meiosis (1 cell

2 cells) and 4 cells)

and Sexual Reproduction where 1 +1 = 2 = 1!

Gametophyte (N) mitosis

Gametes (N) fuse

(sexual reproduction) to form zygote (2N) mitosis Mature Sporophyte (2N) meiosis Spores (n)

ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS

Lower Plants

Higher Plants

SHADED AREA REPRESENT RELATIVE TIME IN DIPLOID OR SPOROPHYTIC PHASE; OPEN = RELATIVE TIME IN HAPLOID OR GAMETOPHYTIC PHASE.

1 MOSS

FERN

A
www.calflora.net silviahartmann.com

D E A

D C

C B

Mitosis and Meiosis

http://www.vcbio.science.ru.nl/images/cellcycle/mmitosis_onion_zoom.jpg

http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/biocoach/index.html

Figure 6.1

Structure of DNA Nitrogenous bases

Adenine Thymine Guanine Cytosine

Phosphate (PO4) Deoxyribose sugar

Figure 2.2 A. Chromosome Physical States

Nucleus Nucleus

Relaxed Chromosome

Condensed Chromosome

B. Chromosome Conformations
Chromatid Sister Chromatids DNA Synthesis

C. Homologous Chromosomes

Locus 2 Centromere Locus 1

Centromere

Chromosome 1 Chromosome 1 Chromosome 1

Chromosome 2

http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2001/cellcycle_eng.jpg

STAGES OF MITOSIS
PROPHASE: Shortening and thickening of chromosomes (actually sister chromatids: Movement to the metaphase plate; nucleous disappears; nuclear membrane disappears.
METAPHASE: Chromosomes lie on the plate. ANAPHASE: Sister chromatids separate and are pulled toward the poles. TELOPHASE: Last phase of mitosis; chromosomes become reorganized into nuclei nucleolus reappears and nuclear membrane is reformed.

CYTOKINESIS: Literally division of the cytoplasm (including organelles such mitochondria, chloroplasts, etc.

Essentially, mitosis is asexual division (formation of somatic cells and builds the plants. Theoretically, all cells resulting from mitosis are clones not quite true, but close enough for our purposes.

http://tainano.com/Molecular%20Biology%20Glossary.files/image011.gif

1 = Interphase, 2-5 = Prophase; 6 = Early Metaphase; 7 = Late Metaphase; 8 = Anaphase; 9 = Telophase; 10 = Completion of Cytokinesis

http://www.vcbio.science.ru.nl/images/cellcycle/mmitosis_onion_zoom.jpg

Figure 2.7. Mitosis

Metaphase Plate

Nucleus

Interphase Prophase Metaphase

Anaphase Cytokinesis Telophase

OH NO ! MORE DEFINITIONS
Meiosis: Two successive divisions (reduction followed by an equal) that

reduces the ploidy level from 2n to n or diploid to haploid.

Homologous Chromosomes: Chromosomes that associate in pairs in the first division of meiosis: each member of the pair was derived from a different parent.

Crossing Over: The exchange of corresponding segments of genetic material between chromatids of homologous chromosomes. See also Synapse and Chiasma

Recombination: The process by which offspring can gain combination of genes different from the combinations in either of their parents. Leads to genetic diversity.

Stages of Meiosis
Prophase: Same as in mitosis except that crossing over occurs here.
Metaphase I: Homologous chromosomes (each chromosome consists of 2 sister chromatids) line up opposite each other on the plate. Anaphase I: One of each of the homologous pair of chromosomes are drawn to the poles. This essentially reduces the number of chromosomes that are in each cell by half. Diploid Haploid. Telophase I: Haploid cells are established; chromosomes disappear. Prophase II: Chromosome condense (sister chromatids are not identical to one another because of crossing over). Metaphase II: Chromosomes (actually sister chromatids) align on the plate. Anaphase II: One sister chromatid (now chromosome) are drawn to each pole.

Teleophase II and Cytokinesis: Essentially the same as in mitosis.

Meiosis is essentially a reduction division followed by an equal division. Tetrad (4) of cells or spores are formed.

Figure 2.9. Crossing- over

A.

B.

C.

Synapse pairing of homologous Chromosomes

Chiasma - Exchange between homologous chromosomes. Actually sister chromatids during Prophase I.

Results in recombination and increased diversity

Figure 2.8. Mitosis

Metaphase Metaphase I

Meiosis I
Metaphase II

Meiosis II

2N

2N

Metaphase Plate

Metaphase Plate

Metaphase Plate

Anaphase

Anaphase I

Anaphase II

Cytokinesis

Cytokinesis

Cytokinesis

Meiosis

G
C H D
RAF

Figure 2. 3.

Gregory Mendel working with peas made two innovations to the science of genetics: 1) developed pure lines 2) counted his results and kept statistical notes

SOME MORE DEFINITIONS

Pure Line - a population that breeds true for a particular trait [this was an important innovation because any non-pure (segregating) generation would and did confuse the results of genetic experiments] Allele - one alternative form of a given allelic pair; tall and dwarf are the alleles for the height of a pea plant; more than two alleles can exist for any specific gene, but only two of them will be found within any individual Dominant - the allele that expresses itself at the expense of an alternate allele; the phenotype that is expressed in the F1 generation from the cross of two pure lines.

Recessive - an allele whose expression is suppressed in the presence of a dominant allele; the phenotype that disappears in the F1 generation from the cross of two pure lines and reappears in the F2 generation
Co-dominance: a relationship among alleles where both alleles contribute to the phenotype of the heterozygote. Allelic pair - the combination of two alleles that comprise the gene pair

http://www.ndsu.edu/instruct/mcclean/plsc431/mendel/mendel1.htm

More Definitions !!!

Homozygote - an individual which contains only one allele at the allelic pair; for example DD is homozygous dominant and dd is homozygous recessive; pure lines are homozygous for the gene of interest Heterozygote - an individual which contains one of each member of the gene pair; for example the Dd heterozygote Genotype - the specific allelic combination for a certain gene or set of genes Phenotype - literally means "the form that is shown"; it is the outward, physical appearance of a particular trait Mendel's pea plants exhibited the following phenotypes: - round or wrinkled seed phenotype - yellow or green seed phenotype - red or white flower phenotype - tall or dwarf plant phenotype

http://www.ndsu.edu/instruct/mcclean/plsc431/mendel/mendel1.htm

Mendels Laws
Mendel's First Law - the law of segregation; during gamete formation each member of the allelic pair separates from the other member to form the genetic constitution of the gamete e.g. Aa yields gametes with A a

Mendels Second Law -- the law of independent assortment; during gamete formation the segregation of the alleles of one allelic pair is independent of the segregation of the alleles of another allelic pair

Figure 2.5. Mendel's First Law - the law of segregation; during gamete formation each member
of the allelic pair separates from the other member to form the genetic constitution of the gamete

A. Monohybrid Cross
Parent 1 X YY yy Parent 2

B. F1 Self Fertilization
Parent 1 X Yy Yy Parent 2

Gametes:

Gametes:

F1 Fertilization:
Parent 1 Y y Parent 2 y Yy Yy Y

F2 Fertilization:

Parent 1 Y y

Yy

Yy
Parent 2

YY
Yy

Yy YY & Yy
yy

Yy

F1 Hybrid Plants: 100% yellow

F2 Plants: 75% yellow 25% green

yy

Figure 2.6. Independent Assortment Two or more traits.

A. Dihybrid Cross
Parent 1 Parent 2

TTYY
F1 Fertilization:

X
TtYy

ttyy

F1 Plants: 100% tall/yellow B. F1 Self Fertilization

TtYy

X
Parent 1

TtYy

F2 Fertilization:

TY
TY Ty Parent 2 tY TyYY TTYY TTYy

Ty
TTYy TTyy TtYy

tY
TtYY TtYy ttYY

ty
TtYy Ttyy ttYy

Ratios of F2 Plants: T_Y_ = 9/16 tall/yellow T_yy = 3/16 tall/green ttY_ = 3/16 short/yellow ttyy = 1/16 short/green

ty

TtYy

Ttyy

ttYy

ttyy

ty

ty

TY

TtYy

TtYy

TY

TtYy

TtYy

F1 Generation of Dihybid cross

Figure 2.6. Independent Assortment Two or more traits (color and height).
A. Dihybrid Cross
Parent 1 Parent 2

TTYY
F1 Fertilization:

X
TtYy

ttyy

F1 Plants: 100% tall/yellow B. F1 Self Fertilization

TtYy

X
Parent 1

TtYy

F2 Fertilization:

TY
TY Ty Parent 2 tY TyYY TTYY TTYy

Ty
TTYy TTyy TtYy

tY
TtYY TtYy ttYY

ty
TtYy Ttyy ttYy

Ratios of F2 Plants: T_Y_ = 9/16 tall/yellow T_yy = 3/16 tall/green ttY_ = 3/16 short/yellow ttyy = 1/16 short/green

ty

TtYy

Ttyy

ttYy

ttyy

Co-dominance Variation to Mendel laws

Another Monohybrid Cross
RR = Red Flower Parent
r

-- rr = White Flower Parent

r

Rr

Rr
F1

Rr

Rr

If Dominance (R) then all should be RED

Rr

Rr

But co-dominance of R and r produces all pink flowers

Rr

Rr

RR

Rr F2 1 Red; 2 Pink; 1 White

rR

rr

Flowers and Sexual Reproduction

Flower Parts Only Angiosperms!

PIST SEP PET

ST

4
AN ST FL ST STL PIST

OVY
PET

OVL SEP

REC
RAF

6
SEP PET OVL FL CAR OVL

STY OVY LOC OVL FIL

OVY

PET SEP

REC

8
T

MMC

GN PTN S PTN PT

RAF

I
M MSMC

HN
N

DN FMSN

AN PN E S

RAF

Youre Right!!! More Definitions

Self Incompatibility: Plant that cannot fertilize its female gametes with its own male gametes. Basically two types: Gametophytic in which the pollen grain will not grow when it shares the same incompatibility gene (s) and Sporophytic in which the diploid parent hinders germination and growth of the pollen tube. Both types prevent double fertilization. Outcrossing Species: basically self-incompatible; requires a partner of a different genotype. Pollination: The process in which the pollen is carried from the anther to the stigma.Basically two types: Cross (between different genotypes of plants) and Self (same plant). Double Fertilization: one sperm nucleus unites with egg to form the zygote and restore the sporophytic phase (2N) of the plant and the other sperm nucleus uniting with the polar nuclei of the female gametophyte to form the primary endosperm nucleus.

Figure 2.12

(a)

Pollen parent genotype S1S2

S1

S2

S1

S2

S1

S2

S1S2 pistil

S1S3 pistil

S3S4 pistil

Gametophytic Incompatibility

ES

ES

ES

(b)

Pollen parent genotype S1S2

S1

S3

S1

S3

S1

S3

Sporophytic Incompatibility
ES

S1S2 pistil

S2S3 pistil

S2S4 pistil

ES

ES

9
AN PN E SP PT

Double Fertilization

B
PG PN E PT N 2 1 PT

C
OVY
OVL PEN ZY

RAF

Zygotic Embryo Ontogeny -- Dicot

Figure 4.4

10
YGE EN E S
Zygotic embryogenesis Cercis canadensis (Eastern Redbud)

A
GE

D
I
EN

B
C

VT

SM H RM

11

Somatic Embryogenesis

EN SC CL SM SN RM CR

Orchardgrass a monocot

A
EN C SM H

B
C SM
Eastern Redbud a dicot