Divide and Conquer

The most well known algorithm design strategy: 1. Divide instance of problem into two or more smaller instances 2. Solve smaller instances recursively 3. Obtain solution to original (larger) instance by combining these solutions

Design and Analysis of Algorithms - Chapter 4

Divide-and-conquer technique
a problem of size n

subproblem 1 of size n/2

subproblem 2 of size n/2

a solution to subproblem 1

a solution to subproblem 2

a solution to the original problem

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Divide and Conquer Examples

Sorting: mergesort and quicksort Tree traversals Binary search Matrix multiplication - Strassens algorithm Convex hull - QuickHull algorithm

Design and Analysis of Algorithms - Chapter 4

General Divide and Conquer recurrence: T(n) = aT(n/b) + f (n)

1.

where f (n) (nk)

2.
3.

a < bk a = bk a > bk

T(n) (nk) T(n) (nk lg n ) T(n) (nlog b a)

Note: the same results hold with O instead of .

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Mergesort
Algorithm: Split array A[1..n] in two and make copies of each half in arrays B[1.. n/2 ] and C[1.. n/2 ] Sort arrays B and C Merge sorted arrays B and C into array A as follows: Repeat until no elements remain in one of the arrays:
compare the first elements in the remaining unprocessed portions of the arrays copy the smaller of the two into A, while incrementing the index indicating the unprocessed portion of that array

Once all elements in one of the arrays are processed, copy the remaining unprocessed elements from the other array into A.
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Mergesort Example
7 2 1 6 4

Design and Analysis of Algorithms - Chapter 4

Efficiency of mergesort
C(n)

= 2 C(n/2) + Cmerge(n) for n>1, C(1)=0 All cases have same efficiency: (n log n) Number of comparisons is close to theoretical minimum for comparison-based sorting: log n ! n lg n - 1.44 n Space requirement: (n) (NOT in-place) Can be implemented without recursion (bottom-up)
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Quicksort
Select a pivot (partitioning element) Rearrange the list so that all the elements in the positions before the pivot are smaller than or equal to the pivot and those after the pivot are larger than the pivot (See algorithm Partition in section 4.2) Exchange the pivot with the last element in the first (i.e., sublist) the pivot is now in its final position Sort the two sublists

p
A[i]p A[i]>p

Design and Analysis of Algorithms - Chapter 4

The partition algorithm

Design and Analysis of Algorithms - Chapter 4

Quicksort Example
15 22 13 27 12 10 20 25

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Efficiency of quicksort
Best case: split in the middle ( n log n) Worst case: sorted array! ( n2) Average case: random arrays ( n log n) Improvements:

better pivot selection: median of three partitioning avoids worst case in sorted files switch to insertion sort on small subfiles elimination of recursion these combine to 20-25% improvement

Considered the method of choice for internal sorting for large files (n 10000)
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Multiplication of large integers

To multiply two integers of n1 and n2 digits by a pen-and-pencil algorithm, we perform n1n2 multiplications However, remark the example of 23*14, where 23=2.101+3.100 and 14=1.101+4.100 In general: c=a*b=c2.10n+c1.10n/2+c0.100 where c2=a1*b1, c0=a0*b0, c1=(a1+a0)*(b1+b0)-(c2+c0) a0,a1,b0,b1 be the left and right parts of a and b. Recurrence relation Efficiency

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Closest Pair Problem

Problem: find closest points among n ones in kdimensional space Assume points are sorted by x-coordinate values Divide the points in two subsets S1 and S2 of n/2 points by drawing a vertical line at x=c Select the closest pair among the closest pair of the left subset (distance d1), of the closest pair of the right subset (distance d2), and the closest pair with points from both sides We need to examine a stripe of width 2d, where d=min[d1,d2]

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Closest Pair Problem (2)

Geometric explanation

Recurrence relation T(n) = 2T(n/2) + M(n) Efficiency in O(n logn) Optimality

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QuickHull Algorithm
Inspired by Quicksort compute Convex Hull: Assume points are sorted by x-coordinate values Identify extreme points P1 and P2 (part of hull) The set S of points is divided in two subsets S1 and S2 Compute Convex Hull for S1 Compute Convex Hull for S2 in a similar manner
Pmax

P2
P1
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QuickHull Algorithm (2)

How to compute the Convex (upper) Hull for S1

find point Pmax that is farthest away from line P1P2 compute the hull of the points to the left of line P1Pmax compute the hull of the points to the left of line PmaxP2

How to find the Pmax point

Pmax maximizes the area of the triangle PmaxP1P2 if tie, select the Pmax that maximizes the angle PmaxP1P2

The points inside triangle PmaxP1P2 can be excluded from further consideration How to find geometrically the point Pmax and the points to the left of line P1Pmax

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QuickHull Algorithm (3)

How to find geometrically the point Pmax and the points to the left of line P1Pmax Given points P1(x1,y1), P2(x2,y2), Pmax(xmax,ymax) The area of the triangle is half of the magnitude of the determinant
x1 x2 y1 y2 1 1

=x1y2+xmaxy1+x2ymaxxmaxy2x2y1-x1ymax

xmax ymax 1

The sign of the expression is positive if and only if the point Pmax is to the left of the line P1P2
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Efficiency of QuickHull algorithm

Finding point farthest away from line P1P2 can be done in linear time This gives same efficiency as quicksort:

Worst case: (n2) Average case: (n log n)

If points are not initially sorted by x-coordinate value, this can be accomplished in (n log n) no increase in asymptotic efficiency class Other algorithms for convex hull:

Grahams scan DCHull also in (n log n)

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Strassens matrix multiplication

Strassen observed [1969] that the product of two matrices A and B (of size 2nx2n) can be computed as follows:
C00 C01 = A00 A01 * B00 B01

C10 C11

A10 A11

B10 B11
M3 + M 5 M1 + M3 - M2 + M6

M1 + M4 - M5 + M7 = M2 + M4

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Submatrices:
M1 = (A00 + A11) * (B00 + B11) M2 = (A10 + A11) * B00 M3 = A00 * (B01 - B11) M4 = A11 * (B10 - B00) M5 = (A00 + A01) * B11 M6 = (A10 - A00) * (B00 + B01) M7 = (A01 - A11) * (B10 + B11)

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Efficiency of Strassens algorithm

If n is not a power of 2, matrices can be padded with zeros Number of multiplications: Number of additions: Recurrence relations: Other algorithms have improved this result, but are even more complex

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