Chapter 2

Chapter 2 : CELL
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. All Eukaryotic living things are made up of cells. Each cell have different density as they perform specific function. Cell consist of protoplasm ( nucleus + cytoplasm ). Nucleus got nucleoplasm .Inside nucleoplasm got nucleolus , chromatin ,nucleus pore & nucleus envelope. . The term eukaryotic refers to the fact that there is a nucleus, as opposed Bacteria. The nucleus runs the metabolic show in each cell, and have membrane-bound organelles that help with complex processes such as digestion, cellular respiration (the breakdown of glucose to fuel the cell), reproduction, and the production of proteins. Animal cells are better than plant cells . I mean, no other type of cell can bind together with the help of collagen, to make such a large variety of tissues that lead to an big organisms.
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Revathi - Pusat Tuisyen Bintang Ilmu
ANIMAL CELL
PLANT CELL
ORGANELLES
Cellular component that perform specific function in the cell. Got their own enclosed membrane. Got 12 main organelles in a cell plant & cell animal. Organelles are the little organs of the cell - like the heart, kidney and liver are the organs of the body. They are structures with characteristic appearances and specific jobs in the cell. Most only can be seen with electron microscope
Revathi - Pusat Tuisyen Bintang Ilmu 4
CELL MEMBRANE / PLASMA MEMBRANE

Enclosed the cell (When you think about a membrane, imagine it is like a big plastic bag with some tiny holes. That bag holds all of the cell pieces and fluids inside the cell and keeps any nasty things outside the cell. The holes are there to let some things move in and out of the cell. ) The phospholipids make the basic bag. The proteins are found around the holes and help move molecules in and out of the cell. Thin Flexible Semi permeable ( allow certain substance to in & out from cell ) Function :
separates cell from external environment. Regulates the movement of substances in & out the cell. ( one in one out ) Allow the exchange of nutrients/ respiratory gases/ waste products between the cell and environment.
phospholipids are in a shape like a head and a tail. The heads like water (hydrophilic) and the tails do not like water (hydrophobic). The tails bump up against each other and the heads are out facing the watery area surrounding the cell. The two layers of cells are called the bilayer.
Cytoplasm / protoplasm
Within the plasma membrane is the cytoplasm. Cytoplasm is the fluid that fills a cell. It consists of a clear jelly-like fluid called the cytosol or intracellular fluid . The cytosol consists of water in which molecules are dissolved or suspended. These molecules include proteins, fats and carbohydrates ( organic compounds )as well as sodium, potassium, calcium ( inorganic compounds ) and chloride ions ( ions ). Many of the reactions that take place in the cell occur in the cytosol. The cytosol also dissolved enzymes to break down all of those larger molecules. The products can then be used by the organelles of the cell.For example, Glucose may exist in the cytosol but the mitochondria can't use it for fuel. The cytosol has enzymes that break glucose down into pyruvate molecules that are then sent to the mitochondria.
The cell organelles are suspended in the cytosol. You will learn that the microfilaments and microtubules set up a "skeleton" of the cell and the cytosol fills the spaces. The cytoplasm has many different molecules dissolved in solution. You'll find enzymes, fatty acids, sugars, and amino acids that are used to keep the cell working. Waste products are also dissolved before they are taken in by vacuoles or sent out of the cell.
Nucleoplasm can only be found inside of the nucleus.

The nucleoplasm is the suspension fluid that holds the cell's chromatin and nucleolus. It is not always present in the nucleus. When the cell divides, the nuclear membrane dissolves and the nucleoplasm is released. After the cell nucleus has reformed, the nucleoplasm fills the space again.
Cell wall ( 4 functions ) - maintain the shape ,

- support the cell, - give strength, - protect bursting of cell due to excess water.
Cell walls are only found in plant cells. Cell walls are made of Cellulose, a structural carbohydrate (complex sugar) because it is used in protection and support , a framework for a plant cell to survive. It's like taking a water balloon and putting it in a cardboard box. The balloon is protected from the outside world. Cell walls also help a plant keep its shape. While they do protect the cells, cell walls and cellulose also allow plants to grow. While you have a skeleton to hold you up, a 100-foot tall redwood tree does not. It uses the strong cell walls to maintain its shape. For smaller plants, cell walls are slightly elastic. Wind can push them over and then they bounce back. Big redwoods need strength in high winds and sway very little. Another Hole in the Wall There are small holes in the wall that let nutrients, waste, and ions pass through. Those holes are called plasmodesmata. These holes have a problem: water can also be lost. But even when the plant cell loses water, the basic shape is maintained by the cell walls. So if a plant is drooping because it needs water, it can recover when water is added. It will look just the same as when it started.
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Vacuoles - Storage Bins

Fluid filled sacs Enclosed by semi permeable Membrane called TONOPLAST The inside fluid is called Cell Sap. As a store to keep water,amino acids,oxygen,waste etc. Help in plant elongation by absorbing water and causing cells to expand. They are found in both animal and plant cells but are much larger in plant cells
When a plant cell has stopped growing, there is usually one very large vacuole. The vacuole holds large amounts of water or food. Don't forge that vacuoles can also hold the plant waste products. Those waste products are slowly broken into small pieces that cannot hurt the cell. The size of the cell increase or decrease depending on how much water is present. Plant cells do not shrink because of changes in the amount of cytoplasm. Most of a plant cell's volume depends on the material in vacuoles. A drooping plant has lost much of its water and the vacuoles are shrinking. It still maintains its basic structure because of the cell walls. When the plant finds a new source of water, the vacuoles are refilled and the plant regains its structure.
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vesicles
Cell secretions - e.g. hormones,protenis - are packaged in secretory vesicles at the Golgi apparatus. The secretory vesicles are then transported to the cell surface for release.
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Nucleus
Largest organelle in cell. acts like the brain of the cell. It helps control eating, movement, and reproduction. The nucleus is not always in the center of the cell. It will be a big dark spot somewhere in the middle of of the cytoplasm (cytosol). Spherical Dense Got : a) Nucleus envelope separate the contents of nucleus from cytoplasm such as the chromatin and nucleolus inside. b) chromatin carries DNA ( genetic material ) c ) nucleolus looks like a nucleus inside of the nucleus. It is made of RNA and protein. Produce ribosomes.
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Biology breaks cell types into eukaryotic (those with a defined nucleus) and prokaryotic (those with no defined nucleus.In a not defined nucleus, your DNA is probably floating around the cell in a region called the nucleoid. A defined nucleus holds the genetic code . Chromatin is made of DNA, RNA, and nuclear proteins. DNA and RNA are the nucleic acids inside of the cell. When the cell is going to divide, the chromatin becomes very compact. It condenses and become chromosomes.
Function : Stores genes in the form of chromosomes, which allows for cell division. Transports gene products by nuclear pores. Produces the messages that code for proteins. Produces ribosomes in the nucleolus. Organizes the uncoiling of DNA.
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Chromosomes are the things that make organisms what they are. They carry all of the information used to help a cell grow, thrive, and reproduce. Chromosomes are made up of DNA. Segments of DNA in specific patterns are called genes. Your genes make you who you are. Chromosomes are not always visible. They usually sit around uncoiled and as loose strands called chromatin. When it is time for the cell to reproduce, they condense and wrap up very tightly. The tightly wound DNA is the chromosome
Scientists count individual strands of chromosomes. They count individuals not every organism has pairs. You probably have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs). Peas only have 12. A dog has 78. The number of chromosomes is NOT related to the intelligence or complexity of the creature. Chromosomes work with other nucleic acids in the cell to build proteins and help in cell division.
Ribosomes - Protein Construction Teams

Cells need to make proteins. Those proteins might be used as enzymes or as support for other cell functions. Ribosomes are the protein builders or the protein synthesizers of the cell. They are like construction guys who connect one amino acid at a time and build long chains. Ribosomes are found in many places around the cell. You might find them floating in the cytoplasm (cytosol). Those floating ribosomes make proteins that will be used inside of the cell. Other ribosomes are found on the endoplasmic reticulum. Endoplasmic reticulum with attached ribosomes is called rough ER. It looks bumpy under a microscope. Those attached ribosomes make proteins that will be used inside and outside of the cell.
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A ribosome are two pieces or subunits; named 60-S (large) and 40-S (small). When the cell needs to make protein, mRNA is created in the nucleus. The mRNA is then sent into the cell and the ribosomes. When it is time to make the protein, the two subunits come together and combine with the mRNA. The subunits lock onto the mRNA and start the protein synthesis.
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The process of making proteins is simple. We just explained that mRNA is made in the nucleus and sent into the cell. The mRNA then combines with the ribosome subunits. Another nucleic acid lives in the cell - tRNA, which stands for transfer RNA. tRNA is bonded to the amino acids floating around the cell. With the mRNA offering instructions, the ribosome connects to a tRNA and pulls off one amino acid. Slowly the ribosome makes a long amino acid chain that will be part of a larger protein.
Mitochondria - Powerplant
Mitochondria are known as the powerhouses of the cell. They are organelles that act like a digestive system that takes in nutrients, breaks them down, and creates energy for the cell. The process of creating cell energy is known as cellular respiration.
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Mitochondria have two membranes. The outer membrane covers it.The inner membrane folds over many times (cristae). That folding increases the surface area inside the organelle for chemical reactions happen.The increased surface area allows the small organelle to do as much work as possible. If you have more room to work, you can get more work done. Similar surface area strategies are used by microvilli in your intestinal cells. The fluid inside of the mitochondria is called the matrix.
Using Oxygen to Release Energy How are mitochondria used in cellular respiration? The matrix is filled with water (H2O) and proteins (enzymes). Those proteins take food molecules and combine them with oxygen (O2). The mitochondria are the only place in the cell where oxygen can be combined with the food molecules. After the oxygen is added, the material can be digested. They are working organelles that keep the cell full of energy in the form of ATP ( adenosine triphosphate ).
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Endoplasmic Reticulum
Connected to nuclear membrane & extending out into cytoplasm. ER functions as a packaging system. It does not work alone. The ER works closely with the Golgi apparatus, ribososmes, RNA, mRNA, and tRNA. It creates a network of membranes found through the whole cell. Sacs of the ER called cisternae store the complex molecules.
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Smooth ER
Acts as a storage organelle of steroids. It also stores ions in solution that the cell may need at a later time. The ion storage , mostly calcium ions is important because sometimes a cell needs ions fast. It might not want to search the environment for ions, so it is easier to have them stored in a pack for easy use. the detoxification of organic compounds within liver cells. the release of glucose and lipids in liver cell.
Rough ER
They are very important in the synthesis and packaging of proteins. The ribosomes are attached to the membrane of the ER. As the ribosome builds the amino acid chain, the chain is pushed into the ER. When the protein is complete, the rough ER pinches off a vesicle. That vesicle, a small membrane bubble, can move to the cell membrane to sent out or the Golgi apparatus, where they are modified further.
Golgi apparatus
The Golgi apparatus or Golgi complex is found in most cells. It is another packaging organelle like the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). It was named after Camillo Golgi, an Italian biologist. Made up of an orderly stack of flattened, membranous layers, known as cisternae. Located within the cytoplasm & near the Endoplasmic Reticulum. Modifies protein Transport protein to other part of the cell. Gathers simple molecules and combines them to make molecules that are more complex. It then takes those big molecules, packages them in vesicles, and either stores them for later use or sends them out of the cell. It is also the organelle that builds lysosomes (cell digestion machines).
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The Golgi complex works closely with the rough ER. When a protein is made in the ER, something called a transition vesicle is made. This vesicle or sac floats through the cytoplasm to the Golgi apparatus and is absorbed. After the Golgi does its work on the molecules inside the sac, a secretory vesicle is created and released into the cytoplasm. From there, the vesicle moves to the cell membrane and the molecules are released out of the cell.
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Centrioles - Organizing Chromosomes
Cylindrical shape Found only in animal cell. Centrioles are made of the protein tubulin and are arranged into nine evenly spaced fibrils, each fibril consisting of three microtubules. They are always found in pairs. Centrioles participate in cell division and forming the mitotic spindle when the time comes for the cell to split by meiosis & Mitosis.
Lysosomes Little Enzyme Packages

Small Spherical Produced by Golgi Got hydrolytic enzymes / digestive enzymes Break down complex organic molecules such as proteins, lipids and wastes.
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Chloroplasts - Show me the Green lens shaped,got chloropyl ( green pigment),found only in plant cells,double membrane
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Two membranes contain and protect the inner parts of the chloroplast. The stroma is an area inside of the chloroplast where reactions occur and starches (sugars) are created. One thylakoid stack is called a granum / the whole stacks are called grana. The thylakoids have chlorophyll molecules on their surface. That chlorophyll uses sunlight to create sugars. The stacks of sacs are connected by stromal lamellae. The lamellae act like the skeleton of the chloroplast, keeping all of the sacs a safe distance from each other. The purpose of the chloroplast is to make sugars and starches in a process called photosynthesis.
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Cell organization unicellular organisms

Can feed,respire,excrete,move,sensitive to external and internal environments ( respond to stimuli),reproduce and grow. The survival depends on its structure & cellular components as it does not have any system. Example are, Amoeba,Paramecium etc.
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AMOEBA
Habitat - Free living in lakes,ponds, rivers,streams and puddles or damp soil. Amoebas are so tiny that you need a microscope to see them OR parasetic (live in the bodies of animals). Characters Cytoplasm is enclosed by plasma membrane. Changes its shape when there is a problem & respond to stimuli.If favourable stimuli such as got food,amoeba will move towards them.If adverse stimuli such as acidic,bright light,amoeba move away from them. Outer part of cytoplasm is ectoplasm & inner part is endoplasm.
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cell membrane - the thin layer of protein and fat around amoeba; it allows some substances to pass into the cell, and blocks other substances.
contractile vacuole - a cavity within the amoeba that excretes excess water and waste; the waste is brought to the cell membrane and is then eliminated from the amoeba.As amoeba live in water , water will keep diffuse into the cells and fills the contractile vacuole .When the vacuole reach the maximum size,it contracts to remove its content from time to time.This process is called osmoregulation.
cytoplasm - a jelly-like material that fills most of the cell; f ood vacuole - a cavity within the amoeba in which food is digested (broken down in order to be absorbed by the amoeba). nucleus - the major organelle of the amoeba, located centrally; it controls reproduction (it contains the chromosomes) and many other important functions (including eating and growth).
pseudopods - temporary "feet" that the amoeba uses to move around and to engulf food; During Feeding ( to eat ), amoeba stretches out the pseudopod, surrounds a piece of food, and pulls it into the rest of the amoeba's body. Amoebas eat algae, bacteria, other protozoans, and tiny particles of dead plant or animals.This method of engulfing is called phagocytosis.Amoeba approaches the food,packed it into a food vasicles,fused with lysosome which contain hydrolytic enzyme called lysozyme, digest the food.The nutrients will be absorbed into cytoplasm.undigested materials is left behind when the amoeba moves away.
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Locomotion Using the pseudopod ,amoeba's stretch out and pull itself in. This process is called cytoplasmic projection.After the false feet move to the wanted direction,the cytoplasm also moves.This is known as ameboid movement. Amoebas reproduce - (make more amoebas) by a process called binary fission, an asexual method when there is enough food. confition.This means that one amoeba can split in half and make two identical new amoebas. If no enough food or dry condition, amoeba reproduce by forming spores. The spores germinate when the food is enough with wet.So , amoeba grow by synthesising cytoplasm. They spend most of their time attached to the bottom or to plants. Sometimes they float freely in the water. They do this as a "swarm." All the amoebas of the same species will unattach from the bottom or plants and float around until they land in a new place and re-attach. Example animals that eat amoeba are mussels. Respiration )( exchange of oxygen & carbon dioxide happen through simple diffusion (passive movement of molecules from higher concentration to lower concentration. ). Excretion remove carbon dioxide & ammonia through diffusion.
PARAMECIUM
Found in ponds with decaying organic matter. Slipper like shape. surface covered with cilia ( short hair ) Cilia help in locomotion & feeding. Locomotion is movement by beating the cilia.This enables cilia to move forward while rotate & spiral on the way. Feeding on fungi,bacteria . Engulf the food into food vacuole & digested by hydrolytic enzyme.Than the nutrients are absorbed into cytoplasm.The waste is removed by anal pore.
Cilia also the sensitive chemicals,carbon dioxide, oxygen , bright light,touch and temperature and Move in opposite direction to avoid it. Respiration & excretion happen by diffusion in plasma membrane. Has 2 nuclei.Macronucleus ( control cell activities and asexual reproduction ) & Micronucleus.( sexual reproduction by conjugation.)
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osmoregulation
Control water to be in balance inside the cell. Got 2 contactile vacuole at the anterior ( front) & posterior ( end ). Water enter the 2 contractile vaculoe by osmosis and enlarge the vaculole. Than, the sufficient amount of water is taken by the cell.The excess is removed by 2 contractile vaculoe .
Reproduction
By binary fission one paramecium split into 2 identitical cell in.( 2 / 3 times per day ). The macronucleus pinched off in the middle of the cell. In situation of overcrowded / environment stress, paramecium did sex by conjugation. 2 cells attached -> micronucleus divide -> form 4 haploid cell ( half cells )-> 3 died and 1 live -> the one haploid cell again divide by mitosis -> form 2 nucleus ->they exchange the haploid micronuclues -> separate into 2 new cells.
MULTICELLULAR ORGANISM
More than one cell. Cell grow ->change shape->adopt themselves to carry out specific functions called differentiation.Example cell :red blood cell. Many cells,similar in structure,perform specific function-> tissue.Example tissue :muscle tissue Different tissue come together -> organ.Example : heart. Several organs are organised to form ->system.Example : digestive system. Several system form into ->multicellular organism.
EXAMPLE CELL
Nerve cell long , thin,carry nerve impulse ( sms) throughout the body.
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Muscle cell long,multiple nuclei,got protein fibres that contract to produce movement.
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RED BLOOD CELL shape like bio concave disc allows oxygen to diffuse into the whole cell fast. do no have nucleus
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Sperm cell long tail high density of mitochondria which allow fast swimming to ovum.
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White blood cell can change shape easy to move through the blood vessel to fight infections.
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EPITHELIAL CELL
Got glands to secrete mucus. Folded to increase surface area for secretion of higher amount of mucus.
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CELL ORGANISATION
A group of cell can function more efficiently than a single cell. Can do different tasks. Can have a higher growth rate. Can adapt in diverse habitats & environment.
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TISSUE
A group of specialised cells with a common structure and function. 4 main tissues : epithelial Nerve Connective muscle
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
One / more layers, folded, to increase the surface area. Secrete mucus Tightly interconnected -Little space Cover our body in many parts :
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(a) at the surface of skin,lining of the mouth,oesophogus protection against injuries,chemicals,dehydration,regulate body temperature.
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(b)at the lining of heart,blood vessels,lungs thin, so easy for gas exchange.
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( c ) at the lining of glands,kidney tubules form glands in the skin. Example sweat glands,oil glands in the skin.
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(d ) at the lining of small intestine absorb nutrients after digestion.
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( e) at the lining of trachea lines trachea together with cilia.secrete mucus that trap dust ; cilia sweeps the impurities away from the lungs
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MUSCLE TISSUE
Made up by muscle fibers. 3 types : smooth , skeletal,cardiac. (a) smooth walls of digestive part,blood vessels,bladder,reproductive tract. Control the involuntary actions of the body.Example , food movement along the digestive tract. Contract slowly & longer time compare to skeleton muscle.
( b) Skeletal muscle Attached to bones Control the voluntary actions by contract. ( c) Cardiac muscle At the heart Involuntary Contract to pump blood to all parts of the body.
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NERVE TISSUE
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made up neurons. (nerve cell fibres ) bound together. Neurons stimulate and transmit impulses very rapidly. 3 types of neurons: conduct impulses from the sensory organs to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) sensory (or afferent) neurons. conduct impulses from the central nervous system to the effector organs (such as muscles and glands) - motor (or efferent) neurons. Interneurons (also known as connector neurons or association neurons) connect sensory neurons to motor neurons.
Connective tissue / cellular glue

Material between the cells of the body . Gives tissues shape and strength. Deliver nutrients to the tissue. surrounds many organs. made up of proteins, including: collagens (a fibrous protein building block). proteoglycans (a group of proteins that maintain tissue stiffness). glycoproteins (composed of a protein and a sugar) Types of connective tissues : 1. Loose connective tissues (adipose tissue) 2. Dense connective tissues (tendon) 3. Support tissue (cartilage and bone) 4. Blood and blood forming tissue (red marrow)
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( 1 )Cartilage tissue tough, semi-transparent, elastic and flexible. covered by a dense fibrous membran called perichondrium. No nerves or blood vessels in cartilage. The main functions of cartilage tissue : reducing friction at the joints. supporting tracheal and bronchial tubes. acting as shock absorbers between vertebrae. maintaining the shape and flexibility of ear, nose.
Types of cartilage tissues : hyaline cartilage Bronchial Tubes ,Larynx (voice-box); Nose; Trachea ; Embryonic skeleton ( in fetus). provides smooth surfaces, enabling tissues to move/slide easily over each other. e.g. facilitating smooth movements at joints. also provides flexibility and support.
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Fibrocartilage between the ends of the bone at the site of a healing fracture (blood clot -> granulation tissue -> cartilage -> bone); between the spine. knee joint. hip bones join. support the structures & strongest of the three types of cartilage.
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elastic cartilage Auditory (Eustachian) Tubes; External Ear (Auricle); Epiglottis (the lid on the top of the larynx). Support the part Maintain the shape.
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BONES
Bones protect the body against mechanical damage, assisting in the movement of the body, providing a framework and shape for the body, storing minerals and producing red blood and white blood cells. Located in a matrix consist of calcium.that is why it is harder than cartilage.
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BLOOD
Blood tissues are found inside the blood vessels (arteries, arterioles( many arterioles -> artery, capillaries, venules ( many venules -> vein ) and veins ). Produced in bone marrow of long bone. Blood consists : 55% - Plasma 45% - Components such as 99% are erythrocytes (red blood cells) and 1% are leucocytes (white blood cells) and thrombocytes (blood platelets).
The Functions of blood tissues : 1.Transports: Dissolved gases (e.g. oxygen, carbon dioxide); Waste products of metabolism (e.g. water, urea); Hormones; Enzymes; Nutrients (such as glucose, amino acids, micro-nutrients (vitamins & minerals), fatty acids, glycerol); Plasma proteins (associated with defence, such as blood-clotting and anti-bodies); Blood cells (incl. white blood cells 'leucocytes', and red blood cells 'erythrocytes'). 2.Maintains Body Temperature 3. Controls pH The pH of blood must remain in the range 6.8 to 7.4, otherwise it begins to damage cells. 4.Removes toxins from the body The kidneys filter all of the blood in the body (approx. 8 pints), 36 times every 24 hours. Toxins removed from the blood by the kidneys leave the body in the urine. (Toxins also leave the body in the form of sweat.) 5.Regulation of Body Fluid Electrolytes Excess salt is removed from the body in urine, which may contain around 10g salt per day (such as in the cases of people on western diets containing more salt than the body requires).
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Lymph (Fluid) The fluid "lymph" can be described as a tissue in its own right - in the same way as the fluid "blood" can be described as "blood tissue". Lymph is a clear fluid that is similar to plasma but contains less protein. It flows through lymphatic vessels throughout the body and got chemicals and cells whose composition varies according to location within the body. Despite being a fluid, lymph is classified as a connective tissue. The lymphatic system is part of the body's immune system
Adipose Tissue is a connective tissue that is packed with many fat cells. forms a thick layer under the skin, around the kidneys and buttocks. acts as an insulating layer to reduce heat loss through the skin.
protect by providing mechanical protection ("padding") and support around some of the major organs such as kidneys. Store energy - excess food is converted into fat and stored in the body.
The skin is the body's largest organ, covering the entire body. In addition to serving as a protective shield against heat, light, injury, and infection, the skin also: Regulates body temperature. Stores water and fat. Is a sensory organ. Prevents water loss. Prevents entry of bacteria.
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Parts & function of skin

Epidermis thin,made of dead cells.do mitosis to replace the dead cells continuosly. Dermis made of connective tissue ,nerve tissue,epithelial tissue,muscle tissue. Got smooth muscle called hair erector muscle attached to the hair folicle.This muscle contract and cause the hair to stand. Got nerve endings / receptors for each stimuli.Detect the stimuli & transmit impulses to the nervous system.
Connective tissue contain elastic fibres and collagen. Elastic fibre gave elasticity to the skin , allowing the skin to return to is original shape after stretched. Arterioles supply blood to the skin through blood capilaries. Lymphatic vessels collect interstitial fluid within the dermis. Hair follicles produce hair , sweat glands produce oil glands and secrete sebum to lubricants hair & skin.
skin
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11 major system in human

Digestive System The digestive system consists of the esophagus, stomach, and the large and small intestines. It also involves the gall bladder and pancreas, which release the enzymes necessary to break down the food. Respiratory System The respiratory system is responsible for oxygen exchange. The lungs exchange the carbon dioxide carried in the veins with oxygen from breathing. The respiratory system works directly with the circulatory system.
Circulatory System The circulatory system contains the heart and the blood vessels that carry oxygen and nutrients to the tissue in the body. The heart is the main workhorse for the circulatory system. It keeps blood pressure in capillaries so tissues receive enough oxygen to keep cells alive. Muscle and Skeletal System The skeleton consists of bones that give the body structure and support. The bone marrow is also responsible for creation of white and red blood cells. The muscles connected to the bones give the body support and allow for movement by receiving signals from the brain.
Nervous System The nervous system is responsible for communication from the brain to the organs. The brain is the central component that sends electrical impulses to every part of the body. Every sensation, movement, and thought is derived and controlled by the nervous system. Excretory system. Digest food and absorb the nutrients & eliminate the food.Provide surface for gas exchange between the blood and environment.Remove waste like carbon dioxide.Regulate the osmotic balance of the blood.Kidneys,ureters,urinary bladder,urethra,skin & lungs.
Reproductive system. Male testis,seminal vesicles ,penis produce sperm and male hormone Female ovaries,fallopian tube,uterus,cervix,vagina produce ova,develop foetus. Muscluar system Skeletal , smooth and cardiac Contract to move the parts of the body. Integumentary system Skin physically separate the body from external environment. Protect the body.
Endocrine system Glands,such as pituitary ,thyroid,adrenal,pancreas secrete hormones Lymphatic system Lymphatic vessels,lymph nodes,bone marrow,thymus. Defend body from infection. Return excess tissue fluid to the blood.
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Example of the flow

Muscle cell ->bundle of muscle cells form the cardiac muscles ->heart ->heart + blood vessels + blood ( SYESTEM )
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Organization of Plants
At the lowest level are cells
Example: Parenchyma, Sclerenchyma, vessel elements
Cells are organized together to form tissues

Example: xylem, phloem
Tissues are organized together to form organs (two or more tissues performing specific functions)
Example: Leaves, flower
Organs are organized together to form organ systems

Example: shoot & root
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2 Main tissues : ( a) meristematic Tissue thin walls,no vacuoles,dense cytoplasm,large nucleus,divide actively,no differentiation. 2 types : (1)Apical meristems at the tip of root,buds of shoots. - >Did mitosis to increase amount of cells for plant growth. (2) Lateral meristems / cambia found in peripheral area of stems & root. - >Help in secondary growth to support &strengthen the plants.
( B )Permanent tissues consist of mature cells,will did differentiation . 3 types : (1)Epidermal tissue (2)Ground tissue - parenchyma & collenchyma & sclerenchyma. (c) Vascular tissue xylem & phloem
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Cell in Plant
Parenchyma Parenchyma (Para-beside;chyma- in filling ) is a ground tissue. It forms the cortex ( ouside ) and pith ( inside ) of stems, the cortex of roots, the mesophyll of leaves, the pulp of fruits, and the endosperm of seeds. living cells and may remain meristematic at maturity, meaning that they are capable of cell division if given the correct hormone stimulus. They have thin but flexible cellulose cell walls.. They have large central vacuoles, which allows the cells to store and regulate ions, waste products and water. Functions: In leaf , Mesophyll divided into two layers : palisade layer & spongy layer . Palisade cells are more column-like, and lie just under the epidermis.The spongy cells are more loosely packed and lie between the palisade layer and the lower epidermis. The air spaces between the spongy cells allow for gas exchange. Mesophyll cells (both palisade and spongy) are packed with chloroplasts, and this is where photosynthesis actually occurs. Storage of starch, protein, fats and oils and water in roots, tubers (e.g. potato). Secretion (e.g. hydathodes, nectaries and cells lining the inside of resin ducts) Wound repair and the potential for renewed meristematic activity. Specialized functions such as aeration (aerenchyma) and support.
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Collenchyma Cells Collenchyma tissue is composed of elongated cells with irregularly thickened walls. They provide structural support, particularly in growing shoots and leaves. Collenchyma tissue composes, for example, the elastic strands in stalks of celery. Sclerenchyma Cells Thick secondary cell walls by lignin
Support,strengthen & protect the plant.
Dead at maturity Cannot increase in length - occur in parts of the plant which have quit growing in length. Two types - fibers and schlerids
Fibers - long cells with regular cell wall
Example - hemp fibers for making rope
Sclerids - shorter cells with an irregular shape

Example - stone cells in pears and hard nut and seed shells
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Sclerenchyma so thick that, at maturity, the cell is completely cut off from the extracellular environment and dies. The cytoplasm and the organelles of these dead cells disintegrate ( become less mess ).Since the sclerenchyma cells contain lignin in their second cell wall, they are rigid., So when the disintegration is over, the rigid cell walls remain and provide a sort of skeletal support for the water-conducting tissue or the plant itself. Form a major part of fruit pits and also the hard outer shell of nuts. . Humans use sclerenchyma cells fibers, not the actual cell, to make linen and rope.
Xylem tissue : Do no have cytoplasm.Hence, water can enter freely.The end walls of the cell walls have tiny holes and thickened with lignin prevent food from enter the cell.So, dies after mature. Form a continuous vessel or tube which allows water and mineral to be transported from root to leaves. Give support & strength to the cell.
Tracheids (left) are old , while the various types of vessels (the other three) are more young .
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Phloem tissue :
located outside the xylem
transport of sucrose, other organic compounds such as carbohydrate , asid aminos and some ions from leaves to organs and growing part of plants.
Consist of parenchyma,sclereids,sieve tubes and companion cells. The conductive cell in phloem is the sieve tubes with pores at both ends called sieve plates. Sieve tubes get nutrients and energy from companion cells. Companion control the nearby sieve cells. Dissolved food, as sucrose, flows through the sieve cells.
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Epidermis : Got a waxy cuticle layer deposited on top of the epidermal cells. Thus help : in prevention of water loss. barrier to fungi as it is closely packed, with little intercellular space. Prevent from the injuries. In root, epidermal cells have long projections called root hairs.Thus,increase the surface area for aborption of minerals & water from soil. In leaves , the epidermal have Guard cells - bean-shaped & cover the stomata. If the guard cells are full of water, they swell up and bend away from each other which opens the stoma. During dry times, the guard cells close. Stomata (singular stoma) - facilitate gas exchange between the inner parts of leaves, stems, and fruits.
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Organ & system in plants

Organ in plants leaves,stems,roots,flowers. 2 types of system : The Root System ( absorptive system ) Underground (usually) Anchor the plant in the soil Absorb water and nutrients as it is branched out. Conduct water and nutrients to xylem. Food Storage The Shoot System ( consist of stems,leaves,buds,flowers & fruits ) Above ground . Elevate ( lift up ) the plant above the soil .
( 1) stem & branch support the leaves by holding it into a position for maximum absorption of sunlight & position the flowers for pollination. ( 2)leaves- main photosynthetic system to make food & transport the food by phloem & help in plants growth. ( 3) Flower & fruit reproduction where flower make seeds -> fruits after fertilisation.
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Internal Environment of Multicellular Organism The internal environment of a multicellular cell is referring to the medium surrounding the cell. It consists of blood plasma and interstitial fluid. (Also named as the extracellular fluid fills the spaces between the cell. Nutrients & waste are exchanged between the interstitial fluid & plasma .
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Physical factors & chemical factors have to be maintained. Physical factors temperature ,blood pressure,osmotic pressure. Chemical factors salt,sugar contents and ph. Homeostasis is the property of a system that regulates its internal environment and tends to maintain a stable such as temperature or pH. In simple terms, it is a process in which the body's internal environment is kept stable. If any value is increase , the homeostasis mechanism will be activated to reduce it.
Positive feedback
Positive feedback is a mechanism by which an output is enhanced, such as protein levels. Positive feedback mechanisms are designed to accelerate or enhance the output created by a stimulus that has already been activated. One positive feedback example event in the body is blood platelet accumulation, which, in turn, causes blood clotting in response to a break or tear in the lining of blood vessels. Another example is the release of oxytocin to intensify the contractions that take place during childbirth.
Negative feedback
Negative feedback mechanisms consist of reducing the output or activity of any organ or system back to its normal range of functioning. A good example of this is regulating blood pressure. Blood vessels can sense resistance of blood flow against the walls when blood pressure increases. The blood vessels act as the receptors and they relay this message to the brain. The brain then sends a message to the heart and blood vessels, both of which are the effectors. The heart rate would decrease as the blood vessels increase in diameter (known as vasodilation). This change would cause the blood pressure to fall back to its normal range. The opposite would happen when blood pressure decreases, and would cause vasoconstriction.
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Another important example is seen when the body is deprived of food. The body would then reset the metabolic set point to a lower than normal value. This would allow the body to continue to function, at a slower rate, even though the body is starving. Therefore, people who deprive themselves of food while trying to lose weight would find it easy to shed weight initially and much harder to lose more after. This is due to the body readjusting itself to a lower metabolic set point to allow the body to survive with its low supply of energy. Exercise can change this effect by increasing the metabolic demand. Another good example of negative feedback mechanism is temperature control. The hypothalamus, which monitors the body temperature, is capable of determining even the slightest variation of normal body temperature (37 degrees Celsius). Response to such variation could be stimulation of glands that produce sweat to reduce the temperature or signaling various muscles to shiver to increase body temperature
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Important of regulating / maintain the internal environment.

Can live in different environment. Enables metabolic processes to continue even though the external environment changes. Living organism can control their metabolic rate according to the need. Efficient & optimum metabolism in the cell. Enzymes can function properly.
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( 1)Body temperature integumentary system ( skin and sweat ),nervous system,circulatory system,muscular system,endocrine system. Maintain at 37 (2)oxygen & CO2 levels respiratory , circulatory ( transfer O2 -> lungs & CO2 -> lungs during respiration ) and nervous. ( detect the changes ) (3) blood glucose level Endocrine,circulatory,digestive regulate blood glucose level at 90 mg per 100ml of blood.
(4) blood osmotic pressure nervous ,endocrine,excretory ,circulatory - regulate the water level & minerals in interstitial fluid and blood. (5) ph respiratory ,circulatory,excretory ph of blood & interstitial fluid is maintained at 7.4 by regulating hydrogen ion ( H+),hydroxyl ions ( OH-) & hydrogen carbonate ions ( HC03-)
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Chapter 2

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Chapter 2 : CELL

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CELL MEMBRANE / PLASMA MEMBRANE

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Nucleoplasm can only be found inside of the nucleus.

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Cell wall ( 4 functions ) - maintain the shape ,

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Vacuoles - Storage Bins

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Ribosomes - Protein Construction Teams

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Centrioles - Organizing Chromosomes

Lysosomes Little Enzyme Packages

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Cell organization unicellular organisms

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(d ) at the lining of small intestine absorb nutrients after digestion.

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Connective tissue / cellular glue

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Parts & function of skin

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11 major system in human

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