By: Engr. Donny N.

Salazar

FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEM Flow of Electricity Electricity is the form of energy created by a flow of tiny particles called electrons which travels through wires. This flow is often called electric current (A). Just like water, which can only flow down a hill, an electric current can only flow if there is something to give it a push. For example when you plug a socket, the push can come from a source like a battery or from the wall socket, which provides MAINS ELECTRICITY . If the circuit is not complete, then the electrons cannot move across the gap. There should be a load, wires and the power source which makes a complete circuit.

Current Types: 1. Direct Current (DC) is the movement of electrons in one direction in a conductor. 2. Pulsating direct current is a current in one direction that varies in intensity at a regular interval of time. 3. Alternating current (AC) is a current that changes in direction and intensity at a regular interval of time. VOLTAGE (V) - An electrical pressure which are necessary to produce an electrical current. Examples are: generators, storage batteries, photoelectric cells and thermocouple.

RESISTANCE - The property of a material that causes it to oppose the movement of electrons. An example of high resistance are called non-conductors or insulators. ELECTRICAL POLARITY - All DC sources of electrical pressure have two terminals to which electrical devices are connected. These are positive and negative terminals. Electrons flow through the device from the negative terminal of the source to the positive terminal of the source. OHMS LAW - States that in any electrical circuit, the current is directly proportional to the voltage applied to the circuit and is inversely proportional to the resistance in the circuit.

This can be expressed in the formula as shown below: I = V/R Where: I = intensity of current in amperes. V = quantity of electrical pressure in volts. R = amount of resistance in ohms. ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS There are various electrical symbols being used in electrical engineering. You may research other electrical symbols in the Philippine Electrical Code. For learning purposes, here are commonly used electrical symbols when dealing with circuits.

Vs Vs + i

is
is i

Constant Voltage Ideal independent voltage source Ideal independent current source

Constant Current

Vs =Vx

Vs =ix

is =Vx

is =ix

Vs
+ -

is
+ + -

(c) (a) (b) (d) (f) (e) Ideal dependent Ideal Ideal Ideal Ideal dependent Ideal voltagevoltageindependent independent dependent dependent controlled controlled voltage source current source currentcurrentvoltage source current source controlled controlled voltage source current source

Other electrical symbols like resistor, capacitor and inductor will be introduced when we tackled RLC circuit. Other symbols will be introduced when we also reached the topic about load calculations and electrical plans. PASSIVE AND ACTIVE CIRCUITS - Electric circuit has many elements like resistor, capacitor, inductor, battery etc. Circuit analysis is the process by which voltage or current is measured across the element. In a complete circuit there are two types of elements found active elements and passive elements.

The active elements generate energy. Batteries, generators, operational amplifiers etc are active elements. The passive elements cannot generate energy, they drop energy. Resistor, capacitor, inductor etc are passive elements because they takes energy from circuit.

CONDUCTORS AND ITS PROPERTIES It is frequently desirable, for the purposes of comparison and calculation, to know the resistances of electrical materials in terms of unit dimensions of length and cross-sectional area. Such resistances are generally in tables. This is known as resistivity.

EXAMPLES OF RESISTIVITY CALCULATION (Note : Solution to be presented during class discussion) 1. The substation bus bar is made up of 2 inches round copper bars 20 ft long. What is the resistance of each bar if the resistivity is 0.000001724 ohm-cm. (EEF pp6-8) 2. Determine the resistance of a bus bar copper if the length is 10 meters long and the cross section is 4 x 4 cm. The resistivity is 1.72micro ohm-cm. (EEF pp6-8)

CHARACTERISTICS OF CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

The energy gap for an insulator is so wide that hardly any electrons acquire enough energy to jump into conduction band. The valence band and the conduction band in a conductor ( such as copper) overlap so that there are always many conduction electrons even without application of external energy. A semiconductor has an energy gap that is much narrower that in an insulator.

TEMPERATURE RESISTANCE RELATIONSHIP Experiment has, in fact demonstrated that the resistance of all wires generally used in practice in electrical systems increases as the temperature is raised; moreover, within the usual operating range the resistance varies linearly with temperature changes.

Referring to the graph, note that the results of a temperature resistance test are shown by a heavy oblique line, and that the extrapolated broken portion of the line is merely inferred for the convenience to be a continuation of the actual experimental data. Understand that the region indicated by the broken line is generally below ordinary operating temperature and is drawn only because it serves to locate an arbitrary but convenient inferred absolute zero for the metal concerned. Temperature Coefficient of Resistance It is defined as the ohmic change per degree per ohm at some specified temperature.

Cont

PROBLEMS: 1. The resistance of a copper wire at 30 degree Celcius is 50 ohm. If the temperature coefficient of copper at zero degree is 0.00427, what is the resistance at 100 degree celcius?

Cont

2. A coil of copper wire has a resistance of 62 ohms at a room temperature of 24 deg celcius (a) What will be its resistance at 80 deg celcius (b) at -20 deg celcius?

Cont

***You may use this table to solve for this problem.

3. The moving part of an electrical machine was allowed to remain at rest sufficiently long to acquire the same temperature as that of a room i.e. 23 deg celcius; the resistance of the copper winding was then measured and found to be 0.18 ohm. A second measurement was taken of the same resistor after the machine had been operated for a period of time and, because of normal heating, the resistance rose to 0.206 ohm. Calculate the temperature and temperature rise of the winding.

SERIES CIRCUIT
- Is one in which devices are connected so that there is

only one path for current.

- The total voltage applied to a series circuit is distributed

across the various components of the circuit in a series of voltage drops.

- The sum of the voltage drops across individual resistors

in a series circuit is equal to the total applied voltage. E = E1 + E2 + E3 + E4 ++ En - The current in all components are the same. I = I1 = I2 = I3 = I4 =..=In - The total resistance of a series circuit is equal to the sum of resistances of all resistors in a circuit. R= R1+ R2+ R3+ R4 ++Rn Short Circuit an alternate path of very low resistance in a circuit. Open Circuit occurs when some part of a circuit is either open, such as switch, or malfunctioning such as burned out fuse etc..

PARALLEL CIRCUIT
- Has more than one path for a current. - The voltage are the same to all branches of the circuit.

E = E1= E2=E3=E4=.=En

- The total current in the parallel circuit is equal to the sum

of the currents in the separate components. I = I1+ I2+ I3+ I4+.+ In - Total resistance for equal resistors is computed as R = R(value) divide by number of resistors in parallel. - The total resistance for unequal resistors connected in parallel is: 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2+ 1/R3 + 1/R4+.+1/Rn EXAMPLES: ( copy solution during lecture ) 1. Two 10 ohm resistances are connected in parallel. The two are then connected in series with a 5 ohm resistance. If then connected across a 24 volt battery, find the voltage across the 5 ohm resistance. Answer: 12 volts

2. Find the total resistance, total current, and voltage drops for the circuit shown in the figure. Answer : R = 12 ohm, I = 20 amps, E1 = 40 volts, E2 = 60 volts, E3 = 140 volts.

3. Referring to the circuit shown in the figure calculate a ) total equivalent resistance b) total current It c) the power delivered to the 16 ohm load resistor. Answer : 28 ohms, 8 amps and 64 watts.

Note: Other lectures were presented during actual classes. Lectures not included are delta to wye and wye to delta transformation.

GALVANOMETER Galvanometer, an instrument used to indicate the presence, direction, or strength of a small electric current. The typical galvanometer is a sensitive laboratory instrument used mainly to detect and compare currents.

The galvanometer makes use of the fact that an electric current flowing through a wire sets up a magnetic field around the wire. In the galvanometer, the wire is wound into a coil. When current flows through the coil, one end of the coil becomes a north magnetic pole, the other a south magnetic pole. When a permanent magnet is placed near the coil, the two fieldsthe one from the coil and the one from the magnetinteract. The like poles will repulse each other and the unlike poles will attract. The amount of attraction and repulsion increases as the strength of the current increases. In the moving-magnet galvanometer, the permanent magnet is a needle (much like a compass needle) mounted on a pivot and surrounded by the coil. In the moving-coil galvanometerthe most common typethe coil is mounted on pivots or suspended by thin metal strips. The coil lies between the poles of a permanent magnet in such a way that it rotates when current flows through it. The direction of the rotation depends on the direction of the current through the coil, and the amount of rotation depends on the strength of the current. A galvanometer is often used to indicate when the current in a circuit has been reduced to zero, as in the operation of the Wheatstone bridge, a device for measuring electrical resistances precisely.

A moving-coil mechanism similar to that used in a galvanometer is used in some ammeters. Like the galvanometer, these instruments measure the strength of a current but they can handle a stronger current; unlike the galvanometer, they cannot indicate the current's direction. A moving-coil mechanism is also used in some voltmeters (which measure the voltage in a circuit) and ohmmeters (which measure the resistance in a circuit). In some instruments, a selector switch connects the moving-coil mechanism to different internal circuits so that a single mechanism can be used in making all three types of measurements. The principle upon which the operation of the galvanometer is based was discovered in 1820 by Hans Christian Oersted when he observed that a magnetic needle could be deflected by an electric current. The first galvanometer was made by Johann Schweigger in 1820. In 1882, Jacques Arsene D'Arsonval introduced the moving-coil galvanometer. Edward Weston made important improvements to the device a few years later.

Ammeter - Is an electrical measuring device which is used to measure electric current through the circuit. It is the modified form of the galvanometer. SYMBOL:
A

Conversion of Galvanometer to Ammeter - Since Galvanometer is a very sensitive instrument therefore it cant measure heavy currents. In order to convert a Galvanometer into an Ammeter, a very low resistance known as "shunt" resistance is connected in parallel to Galvanometer. Value of shunt is so adjusted that most of the current passes through the shunt. In this way a Galvanometer is converted into Ammeter and can measure heavy currents without fully deflected.

Value of Shunt Resistance

- Let resistance of galvanometer = Rg and it gives full-scale

deflection when current Ig is passed through it. Then, Vg = IgRg -------(i) - Let a shunt of resistance (Rs) is connected in parallel to galvanometer. If total current through the circuit is I.

Then current through shunt: Is = (I-Ig) potential difference across the shunt: Vs= IsRs
Or

But

Vs = (I Ig)Rs -------(ii) Vs =Vg (I - Ig)Rs = IgRg

Voltmeter - Voltmeter is an electrical measuring device, which is used to measure potential difference between two points in a circuit. SYMBOL:
V

Conversion of Galvanometer into Voltmeter - Since Galvanometer is a very sensitive instrument, therefore it can not measure high potential difference. In order to convert a Galvanometer into voltmeter, a very high resistance known as "series resistance" is connected in series with the galvanometer.

Value of Series Resistance - Let resistance of galvanometer = Rg and resistance Rx (high) is connected in series to it. Then ,combined resistance = (Rg + Rx).

- If potential between the points to be measured = V and if

galvanometer gives full-scale deflection, "Ig" passes through it. Then,

when current

V = Ig (Rg + Rx) V = IgRg + IgRx V IgRg = IgRx Rx = (V IgRg)/Ig

Examples: ( Copy Solution during lecture ) 1. A galvanometer has a coil resistance of 10 ohms and deflects full scale with a current of 5 mA. a) Show how this can be used to construct an ammeter which reads 0 - 1 A. Ans : Rsh = 0.05 ohm b) Show how this can be used to construct a voltmeter which reads 25 volts maximum. Ans.: Rs = 4,990 ohms

2. A shunt is used to extend the range of an ammeter by connecting it across the ammeter. The ammeter has a resistance of 0.1 ohm and gives a full scale deflection of 2.5 A. Calculate the value of the shunt resistance to extend the range of the ammeter to 50 A. Ans. : Rs = 5.263 milliohm 3. Calculate the value of the shunt resistance to be used with the galvanometer having a resistance of 10 ohm if the current through the galvanometer is not to exceed 5 percent of the total current. Ans : Rs= 0.526 ohm 4. A galvanometer coil has a resistance of 12 ohm and it shows full scale deflection at a current of 3 mA. How would you convert it into a. Voltmeter range 0- 18V Ans : Rx = 5998 ohm b. An ammeter range of 0 6A Ans : Rs = 6 milliohm

CLAMP METER - A clamp meter is an electrical tester that combines a basic digital multimeter with a current sensor. Clamps measure current. Probes measure voltage. Having a hinged clamp jaw integrated into an electrical meter allows users to simply clamp around wire, cables and other conductors at any point in the electrical system and measure its current, without disconnecting it.
What do clamp meters measure? Any of these: AC current, AC and DC voltage, resistance, continuity, and, with some models, DC current, capacitance, temperature, frequency and more Typically measure to the nearest tenth of a unit (rather than the milli-units you find in a full-function multimeter), making them perfect for electrical work

CLAMP METER FIGURE

Who uses them? Industrial maintenance technicians Control technicians Electricians in-house and contractors Facilities, building maintenance and HVAC technicians Service organizations What are they used on? Industrial equipment Industrial controls Electrical systems Commercial/industrial HVAC

What do they use them for? Service: Repairing existing systems on an as-needed basis. Installation: Troubleshooting installation problems, performing final circuit tests and supervising apprentice electricians while installing electrical equipment. Maintenance: Performing scheduled and preventive maintenance on electro-mechanical systems.
Why use a clamp meter? Industrial situations often call for simultaneous measurement as part of troubleshooting, so many of those users carry two meters: one to measure electrical current and one to measure voltage. For electricians, a clamp meter is a quick and versatile diagnostic tool for figuring out why an electrical system or piece of equipment is not operating correctly.

Whats inrush? Large machinery often requires a big surge of electricity to get started electricians have to make sure the rest of the system can support that occasional big surge in demand. That surge is called inrush and it causes other problems than just overall supply. Fluke clamps use proprietary technology to filter out electrical noise and capture the starting current exactly as the circuit protection sees it.
Whats different about the new clamps? The flexible coil and the extended measurement ranges help solve these common issues: Tight cabinets and bundled wires that make it difficult to use a regular clamp meter. Large or awkward conductors a regular clamp meter cant get around to measure. Needing a co-workers help to get a measurement. Wanting to measure more than 1,000 amps AC.