National Airspace System (USA)

By 1930s, a network of ground station had been completed. A-N ranges were mainly for en route navigation and homing beacons. DC-3 was the most modern aircraft equipped with:

-Direction finding receiver for homing beacons.

- A low frequency receiver for A-N range and communication.

A-N range and homing beacons have several problems:

Frequencies used are affected by variety of atmospheric conditions; electrical noise from lightning strokes and precipitation static (Pstatic) course by ice crystal. Low frequency signals are degraded by atmospheric propagation
The wave not only travel in straight lines along the surface of the earth but bounce off the ionosphere. The reflected signal (sky wave) interfere with ground wave.

ADF Antenna

Beginning WW2, enhance network of radio beacons for air navigation were use but lacking the precision and versatility for military operation. Radar was developed to detect targets. Secondary radar for determining target identity. IFF (Identification friend or foe) scheme is still in use.

In civil use, Secondary radar is used to display aircraft altitude, enabling radar to depict an aircraft position in 3D. The civil system is known as the Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System. During WW2, lacking in landing navigation aid has led to VHF system capable of providing a large number of services.

VOR: To provide range

Localizer: landing horizontal guidance.

UHF frequency range was used to develop system for providing glide slope during landing. Localizer, Glide Slope and ancillary equipment are called the ILS (Instrument Landing System). 1947, International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) was formed and adopted ILS and VOR as en route, approach and landing system for world.

Communication evolved during WW2, from HF to VHF system. Long Range Navigation (LORAN) was develop during WW2, but early system was slow and cumbersome and intended for ship. A later version, LORAN-C, is used extensively on aircraft.

1950 1970 was a time of technology development in both aircraft and electronics
1950s to the late 80s saw tremendous advances in electronics, beginning with the transistor, followed by the integrated circuit.

Key to miniaturization and development of microprocessor.

Regulatory and Advisory Agencies (USA)

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

Under the administration of UN Headquartered in Montreal, Canada Most worlds countries are member of ICAO
Agree to implement recommendations put forth by the organization.

Malaysia is a member country. Non member country will find it difficult convincing airline to service their country.

ICAO covers all phase of aviation.

e.g. ICAO Annex 14 describes airport characteristic, specifying the size and shape of runways
It is no coincidence that every runway looks much the same.

ICAO annex 10 regulates radio navigation aids and communication, insuring that signals from ground stations or satellites are compatible in every part of the world

ICAO can only make recommendation, known as Standards and Recommended Practices SARPS.

FAA: Federal Aviation Administration

Agency responsible for regulating aviation safety in the US. In Malaysia we have Department of Civil Aviation (DCA) under the administration of The Ministry of Transport.

FAA / DCA write and enforces regulations for many phase of private and commercial aviation.

All written regulations in the US are contained in Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulation (CFR). Cover:

The design and manufacturing of aircraft Testing and licensing of Pilots Mechanics and Air Traffic Controller Testing and Certification of aircraft.

Similar code also exist in Malaysia under the supervision of DCA

FCC: Federal Communication Commission.

Responsible for the orderly operation of communications within the US.

Malaysian Communications & Multimedia Commission (MCMC).

Under the purview of Ministry of Energy, Communications and Multimedia. In Malaysia, the Communications and Multimedia Act (CMA) 1998 is the main legislation that regulate the converging communications and multimedia industries

The Commission is given the power to regulates the communication and multimedia industries through the CMA.

ITU: International Telecommunication Union is the international advisory organization for communication. Based in Geneva, Switzerland MCMC is responsible for the orderly operation of communication in Malaysia

RTCA: Requirement and Technical Concepts in Aviation.

An organization started in 1935 as Radio Technical Commission for Aviation. An advisory committee to FAA. A non-profit making organization, supported by dues of members, which include avionics manufacturers, airlines, military, universities and interested individuals.

Most RTCA activity occurs in special Committee, often requested by FAA. E.g. in 1992, FAA requested RTCA to form a special committee (designated as SC-177) to conduct an investigation about incidents of interference from portable electronic devices carried aboard aircraft.

Document produce SC-177 : DO-233

RTCA provide important information to FAA in area such as:

Minimum Operation Performance Standards (MOPS) The standards produced were the basis of Technical Standard Order (TSO) issued by FAA

ARINC: Aeronautical Radio Incorporated

A non-profit making organization owned by U.S. air carrier Provide services to airlines, mainly the operation of a private air-ground communications system called the Aeronautical Telecommunications Network (ATN). Company communications not handled by FAA such as departure and arrival times, maintenance information, crew and passenger data, provision, gate assignments and so on.

Second function of ARINC is generating avionics standards and research. ARINC standards cover more than basic operating parameter such as physical dimensions, connector description, pin numbers and signal definitions. These standard known as ARINC Characteristic, describe the form, fit and function for airline avionics.

Sufficient detail is provided in the document so an avionics unit made by one manufacturer can plug in and replace a unit of another brand.
This does not mean the inner circuits of the box are the same. Equipment meeting ARINC Characteristics are primarily line replaceable unit (LRU)

Current technology in cockpit instrumentations

Cessna 172

Boeing B737-800

In US, the National Airspace System, (NAS), consists of navigation aid, air traffic control, surveillance radar, pilot advisories and other services. Components of NAS are provided by FAA. In Malaysia similar set-up exist and provided by DCA