Digital Microwave Communication Principles-A

HUAWEI TECHNOLOGIES CO., LTD.
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Huawei Confidential
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2014/2/4
Digital Microwave
Communication
Principles
Copyright 2006 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.
Page 2 Page 2 Page 2
Foreword
This course is developed to meet the requirement of Huawei Optical
Network RTN microwave products.

This course informs engineers of the basics on digital microwave
communications, which will pave the way for learning the RTN series
microwave products later.
Learning Guide
Microwave communication is developed on the basis of the
electromagnetic field theory.
Therefore, before learning this course, you are supposed to have
mastered the following knowledge:
Network communications technology basics
Electromagnetic field basic theory
Objectives
After this course, you will be able to explain:
Concept and characteristics of digital microwave communications
Functions and principles of each component of digital microwave
equipment
Common networking modes and application scenarios of digital
microwave equipment
Propagation principles of digital microwave communication and
various types of fading
Anti-fading technologies
Procedure and key points in designing microwave transmission link
Contents
1. Digital Microwave Communication Overview
2. Digital Microwave Communication Equipment
3. Digital Microwave Networking and Application
4. Microwave Propagation and Anti-fading Technologies
5. Designing Microwave Transmission Links
Transmission Methods
in Current Communications Networks
Optical fiber communication
Microwave
communication
Satellite communication
MUX/DEMUX MUX/DEMUX
M
i
c
r
o
w
a
v
e

T
E

M
i
c
r
o
w
a
v
e

T
E

Coaxial cable communication
Microwave Communication
vs. Optical Fiber Communication
Powerful space cross ability, little land
occupied, not limited by land privatization
Optical fiber burying and land
occupation required
Small investment, short construction
period, easy maintenance
Large investment ,long construction period
Strong protection ability against natural
disaster and easy to be recover
Outdoor optical fiber maintenance required
and hard to recover from natural disaster
Limited frequency resources (frequency
license required)
Large transmission capacity
Limited transmission capacity
Not limited by frequency, license not
required
Stable and reliable transmission quality
and not affected by external factors
Transmission quality greatly affected by
climate and landform
Optical Fiber Communication
Definition of Microwave
Microwave
Microwave is a kind of electromagnetic wave. In a broad sense, the
microwave frequency range is from 300 MHz to 300 GHz. But In
microwave communication, the frequency range is generally from 3
GHz to 30 GHz.
According to the characteristics of microwave propagation, microwave
can be considered as plane wave.
The plane wave has no electric field and magnetic field longitudinal
components along the propagation direction. The electric field and
magnetic field components are vertical to the propagation direction.
Therefore, it is called transverse electromagnetic wave and TEM wave
for short.
Development of Microwave Communication
Note:
Small capacity: < 10M
Medium capacity: 10M to 100M
Large capacity: > 100M
155M

34/140M

2/4/6/8M

480 voice
channels

SDH digital microwave
communication
system
PDH digital microwave
communication
system
Small and medium
capacity digital microwave
communication system
Analog microwave
communication
system
Transmission
capacity
bit/s/ch)
1950s
1970s
1980s
Late 1990s to now
Concept of Digital
Digital microwave communication is a way of transmitting digital information in
atmosphere through microwave or radio frequency (RF).
Microwave communication refers to the communication that use microwave as carrier .
Digital microwave communication refers to the microwave communication that adopts the
digital modulation.
The baseband signal is modulated to intermediate frequency (IF) first . Then the
intermediate frequency is converted into the microwave frequency.
The baseband signal can also be modulated directly to microwave frequency, but only
phase shift keying (PSK) modulation method is applicable.
The electromagnetic field theory is the basis on which the microwave communication
theory is developed.
Microwave Frequency Band
Selection and RF Channel Configuration (1)
Generally-used frequency bands in digital microwave transmission:
7G/8G/11G/13G/15G/18G/23G/26G/32G/38G (defined by ITU-R Recommendations)
8 5 4 3 2 10 20 1 30 40 50
1.5 GHz 2.5 GHz
Long haul
trunk network
2/8/34
Mbit/s
11 GHz
GHz
34/140/155 Mbit/s
2/8/34/140/155 Mbit/s
3.3 GHz
Regional network
Regional network, local network,
and boundary network
In each frequency band, subband frequency ranges, transmitting/receiving spacing
(T/R spacing), and channel spacing are defined.
f
0
(center frequency)
Frequency range
Channel
spacing
f
1

f
2

f
n
f
1

f
2

f
n

Channel
spacing
T/R spacing
T/R spacing

Low frequency band High frequency band
Protection
spacing
Adjacent channel
T/R spacing
f
0
(7575M)
Frequency range (7425M7725M)
28M
f
1
=7442 f
5
f
1
=7596 f
2

f
5

T/R spacing: 154M
f
2
=7470
7G Frequency
Range
F0 (MHz) T/R Spacing
(MHz)
Channel Spacing
(MHz)
Primary and Non-
primary Stations
74257725 7575 154 28
Fn=f0-161+28n,
Fn=f0- 7+28n,
(n: 15)
7575 161 7
71107750 7275 196 28
7597 196 28
72507550 7400 161 3.5

Digital Microwave
Communication Modulation (1)
Digital baseband signal is the unmodulated digital signal. The baseband signal
cannot be directly transmitted over microwave radio channels and must be converted
into carrier signal for microwave transmission.
Digital baseband signal IF signal
B
a
s
e
b
a
n
d

s
i
g
n
a
l

r
a
t
e

C
h
a
n
n
e
l

b
a
n
d
w
i
d
t
h

Modulation
Service signal
transmitted
Digital Microwave
Communication Modulation (2)
ASK: Amplitude Shift Keying. Use the digital baseband signal to change the carrier
amplitude (A). Wc and remain unchanged.
FSK: Frequency Shift Keying. Use the digital baseband signal to change the carrier
frequency (Wc). A and remain unchanged.
PSK: Phase Shift Keying. Use the digital baseband signal to change the carrier phase
(). Wc and A remain unchanged.
QAM: Quadrature Amplitude Modulation. ). Use the digital baseband signal to change
the carrier phase () and amplitude (A). Wc remains unchanged.
A*COS(Wc*t+)
Amplitude Frequency Phase
PSK and QAM are
most frequently
used in digital
microwave.
The following formula indicates a digital baseband signal being converted into a digital
frequency band signal.
Microwave Frame Structure (1)
RFCOH
RFCOH
ATPC
64 kbit/s
DMY
64 kbit/s
MLCM
11.84 Mbit/s
RSC
864 kbit/s
WS
2.24 Mbit/s
XPIC
16 kbit/s
ID
32 kbit/s
INI
144 kbit/s
FA
288 kbit/s
15.552 Mbit/s
SOH Payload
STM-1 155.52 Mbit/s
171.072 Mbit/s
RFCOH: Radio Frame Complementary Overhead
RSC: Radio Service Channel
MLCM: Multi-Level Coding Modulation
INI: N:1 switching command
DMY: Dummy
ID: Identifier
XPIC: Cross-polarization Interference Cancellation
FA: Frame Alignment
ATPC: Automatic Transmit Power Control
WS: Wayside Service
Microwave Frame Structure (2)
RFCOH is multiplexed into the STM-1 data and a block multiframe is formed. Each
multiframe has six rows and each row has 3564 bits. One multiframe is composed of
two basic frames. Each basic frame has 1776 bits. The remaining 12 bits are used
for frame alignment.
Multiframe 3564 bits
Basic frame 2
1776 bits (148 words)
FS
6 bits
Basic frame 1
1776 bits148 words
FS
6 bits
6 bits
C1 I I C1 I I C1 I I C1 I I
C2 I I b I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I I
C1 I I C1 I I C1 I I C1 I I
C2 I I b I I a I I I I I
12 bits (the 1st word) 12 bits (the 148th word)
I: STM-1 information bit
C1/C2: Two-level correction coding monitoring bits
FS: Frame synchronization
a/b: Other complementary overheads
Questions
What is microwave?

What is digital microwave communication?

What are the frequently used digital microwave frequency bands?

What concepts are involved in microwave frequency setting?

What are the frequently used modulation schemes? Which are the most
frequently used modulation schemes?
Contents
Microwave Equipment Category
System Digital microwave
PDH SDH
Split-mount radio
Trunk radio
All outdoor radio
Small and medium
capacity (216E1, 34M)
Large capacity
(STM-0, STM-1, 2xSTM-1)
Capacity
Structure
(Discontinued)
Analog microwave
MUX/DEMUX
Mode
Trunk Microwave Equipment
High cost, large
transmission capacity,
more stable
performance, applicable
to long haul and trunk
transmission

RF, IF, signal
processing, and
MUX/DEMUX units are
all indoor. Only the
antenna system is
outdoor.
SDH microwave equipment
BRU: Branch RF Unit
MSTU: Main Signal
Transmission Unit
(transceiver, modem, SDH
electrical interface, hitless
switching)
SCSU: Supervision,
Control and Switching
Unit
BBIU: Baseband
Interface Unit (option)
(STM-1 optical interface,
C4 PDH interface)
P
M1
M2

All Outdoor Microwave Equipment
All the units are
outdoor.

Installation is easy.

The equipment
room can be saved.
All outdoor microwave equipment
IF and baseband
processing unit
IF cable
RF processing unit
Service and power cable
Split-Mount Microwave Equipment (1)
The RF unit is an outdoor unit (ODU).
The IF, signal processing, and
MUX/DEMUX units are integrated in
the indoor unit (IDU). The ODU and
IDU are connected through an IF cable.

The ODU can either be directly
mounted onto the antenna or
connected to the antenna through a
short soft waveguide.

Although the capacity is smaller than
the trunk, due to the easy installation
and maintenance, fast network
construction, its the most widely used
microwave equipment.

Split-mount microwave
equipment
Antenna
ODU
(Outdoor Unit)
IF cable
IDU
(Indoor Unit)
Split-Mount Microwave Equipment (2)
Unit Functions
Antenna: Focuses the RF signals transmitted by ODUs and increases the signal
gain.
ODU: RF processing, conversion of IF/RF signals.
IF cable: Transmitting of IF signal, management signal and power supply of ODU.
IDU: Performs access, dispatch, multiplex/demultiplex, and
modulation/demodulation for services.
Split-Mount Microwave Equipment
Installation
antenna
(separate mount)
ODU
IF cable

Separate Mount
Soft waveguide
IDU
IF port
antenna
(direct mount)
ODU
IDU
Direct Mount
IF cable
IF port
Microwave Antenna (1)
Antennas are used to send and receive microwave signals.
Parabolic antennas and cassegrainian antennas are two common types of microwave antennas.
Microwave antenna diameters includes: 0.3m, 0.6m, 1.2m, 1.8m,2.0m, 2.4m, 3.0m, 3.2metc.
Parabolic antenna Cassegrainian antenna
Different frequency channels in same frequency band can share one antenna.
Microwave Antenna (2)
T
x
R
x
T
x
R
x
Channe
l
Channe
l
1
1
n
n
1
1
n
n
Antenna Adjustment (1)
Side view
Side lobe
Main lobe
Half-power angle
Tail lobe
Top view
Main lobe
Side lobe
Half-power angle
Tail lobe
During antenna adjustment, change the direction
vertically or horizontally. Meanwhile, use a multimeter to
test the RSSI at the receiving end. Usually, the voltage
wave will be displayed as shown in the lower right corner.
The peak point of the voltage wave indicates the main lobe
position in the vertical or horizontal direction. Large-scope
adjustment is unnecessary. Perform fine adjustment on the
antenna to the peak voltage point.

When antennas are poorly aligned, a small voltage may
be detected in one direction. In this case, perform coarse
adjustment on the antennas at both ends, so that the
antennas are roughly aligned.

The antennas at both ends that are well aligned face a
little bit upward. Though 12 dB is lost, reflection
interference will be avoided.
Side lobe position
AGC
Voltage
detection point
VAGC
Main lobe position
Angle
During antenna adjustment, the two
wrong adjustment cases are show here.
One antenna is aligned to another
antenna through the side lobe. As a
result, the RSSI cannot meet the
requirements.
Correct
Wrong Wrong
Antenna (1)
Antenna gain
Definition: Ratio of the input power of an isotropic antenna Pio to the input power of a
parabolic antenna Pi when the electric field at a point is the same for the isotropic antenna
and the parabolic antenna.
Calculating formula of antenna gain:

Half-power angle
Usually, the given antenna specifications contain the gain in the largest radiation (main lobe)
direction, denoted by dBi. The half-power point, or the 3 dB point is the point which is
deviated from the central line of the main lobe and where the power is decreased by half. The
angle between the two half-power points is called the half-power angle.
Calculating formula of half-power angle:
Half-power angle
D
u ) 70 ~ 65 (
0 0
5 . 0
=
q
t
-
|
.
|
\
|
= =
2
D
P
P
G
i
io
Cross polarization discrimination
Suppression ratio of the antenna receiving heteropolarizing waves, usually, larger than 30 dB.
XdB10lgPo/Px
Po: Receiving power of normal polarized wave
Px: Receiving power of abnormal polarized wave

Antenna protection ratio
Attenuation degree of the receiving capability in a direction of an antenna compared with
that in the main lobe direction. An antenna protection ratio of 180 is called front-to-back
ratio.
Antenna (2)
ODU (1)
ODU system architecture
Uplink IF/RF conversion
Frequency
mixing
Sideband
filtering
Power
amplification
RF
attenuation
ATPC
Power
detection
RF loop
Local
oscillation
(Tx)
Local
oscillation
(Rx)
Frequency
mixing
Filtering
Low-noise
amplification
Bandpass
filtering
Alarm and control
Downlink RF/IF conversion
Supervi
sion and
control
signal
IF
amplificat
ion
IF
amplification
Specifications of Transmitter
Working frequency band
Generally, trunk radios use 6, 7, and 8 GHz frequency bands. 11, 13 GHz and
higher frequency bands are used in the access layer (e.g. BTS access).

Output power
The power at the output port of a transmitter. Generally, the output power is 15 to
30 dBm.
ODU (2)
Local frequency stability
If the working frequency of the transmitter is unstable, the demodulated effectived
signal ratio will be decreased and the bit error ratio will be increased. The value
range of the local frequency stability is 3 to 10 ppm.

Transmit Frequency Spectrum Frame
The frequency spectrum of the transmitted signal must meet specified
requirements, to avoid occupying too much bandwidth and thus causing too much
interference to adjacent channels. The limitations to frequency spectrum is
called transmit frequency spectrum frame.

ODU (3)
ODU (4)
Specifications of Receiver
Working frequency band
Receivers work together with transmitters. The receiving frequency on the local
station is the transmitting frequency of the same channel on the opposite station.

Local frequency stability
The same as that of transmitters: 3 to 10 ppm

Noise figure
The noise figure of digital microwave receivers is 2.5 dB to 5 dB.
Passband
To effectively suppress interference and achieve the best transmission quality, the
passband and amplitude frequency characteristics should be properly chosen. The
receiver passband characteristics depend on the IF filter.

Selectivity
Ability of receivers of suppressing the various interferences outside the passband,
especially the interference from adjacent channels, image interference and the
interference between transmitted and received signals.

Automatic gain control (AGC) range
Automatic control of receiver gain. With this function, input RF signals change within a
certain range and the IF signal level remains unchanges.
ODU (5)
ODU (6)
ODU specifications are related to radio
frequencies. As one ODU cannot cover an entire
frequency band, usually, a frequency band will be
divided into several subbands and each subband
corresponds to one ODU.
Different T/R spacing corresponds to different
ODUs.
Primary and non-primary stations have different
ODUs.
Types of ODUs = Number
of frequency bands x
Number of T/R spacing x
Number of subbands x 2
(ODUs of some
manufacturers are also
classified by capacity.
f
0
(7575M)
Frequency range (7425M7725M)
Subband A
7442
T/R spacing: 154M
7498
Subband B Subband C Subband A Subband B Subband C
Non-primary station Primary station
ODUs are of rich
types and small
volume. Usually,
ODUs are
produced by small
manufacturers and
integrated by big
manufacturers.
IDU
C
a
b
l
e

i
n
t
e
r
f
a
c
e

From/to ODU
Tx IF
Rx IF
Modulat
ion
Demod
ulation
Microwave
frame
multiplexing
Microwave
frame
demultiplexing
Cross-
conne
ction
Tributary
unit
Line unit
IF unit
Service
channel
Service
channel
DC/DC conversion
Supervision and control
O&M
interface
Power
interface
Questions
What types are microwave equipment classified into?

What units do the split-mount microwave equipment have? And
what are their functions??

How to adjust antennas?

What are the key specifications of antennas?

What are the key specifications of ODU transmitters and receivers?

Can you describe the entire signal flow of microwave transmission?
Summary
Classification of digital microwave equipment
Components of split-mount microwave equipment and their
functions
Antenna installation and key specifications of antennas
Functional modules and key performance indexes of ODU
Functional modules of IDU
Signal flow of microwave transmission
Contents
Common Networking Modes of
Digital Microwave
Ring network
Chain network
Add/Drop
network
Hub network
Types of Digital Microwave Stations
Terminal
station
Terminal
station
Terminal
station
Pivotal
station
Add/Drop
relay station
Relay
station
Digital microwave stations are classified into Pivotal stations, add/drop relay stations,
relay stations and terminal stations.
Types of Relay Stations
Relay station
Back-to-back antenna
Plane reflector
Active
Passive
Regenerative repeater
IF repeater
RF repeater
Radio Frequency relay station
An active, bi-directional radio repeater system without frequency shift. The
RF relay station directly amplifies the signal over radio frequency.

Regenerator relay station
A high-frequency repeater of high performance. The regenerator relay station
is used to extend the transmission distance of microwave communication
systems, or to deflect the transmission direction of the signal to avoid
obstructions and ensure the signal quality is not degraded. After complete
regeneration and amplification, the received signal is forwarded.
Active Relay Station
Parabolic reflector passive relay station
The parabolic reflector passive relay station is composed of two
parabolic antennas connected by a soft waveguide back to back.
The two-parabolic passive relay station often uses large-diameter
antennas. Meters are necessary to adjust antennas, which is time
consuming.
The near end is less than 5 km away.
Passive Relay Station
Plane Reflector Passive Relay Station
Plane reflector passive relay station: A metal board which has smooth surface,
proper effective area, proper angle and distance with the two communication
points. It is also a passive relay microwave station.

Full-distance free space loss:

a is the effective area (m
2
) of the flat reflector.
L d d a
s
= + 1421 20 20
1 2
. log log
a A = cos
2
d
1
(km)
(km)
d
2

Passive Relay Station (Photos)
Passive relay station
(plane reflector)
Passive relay station
(parabolic reflectors)
Application of Digital Microwave
Complementary
networks to optical
networks (access the
services from the last
1 km)
BTS backhaul
transmission
Redundancy backup
of important links
VIP customer
access
Emergency
communications
(conventions, activities,
danger elimination,
disaster relief, etc.)
Special transmission
conditions (rivers, lakes,
islands, etc.)
Microwave
application
Questions
What are the networking modes frequently used for digital microwave?

What are the types of digital microwave stations?

What are the types of relay stations?

What is the major application of digital microwave?
Contents
Contents
4.1 Factors Affecting Electric Wave Propagation
4.2 Various Fading in Microwave Propagation
4.3 Anti-fading Technologies for Digital Microwave
Fresnel Zone and Fresnel Zone Radius
Fresnel zone: The sum of the distance from P to T and the distance from P to R
complies with the formula, TP+PR-TR= n/2 (n=1,2,3, ). The elliptical region
encircled by the trail of P is called the Fresnel zone.
Key Parameters in
Microwave Propagation (1)

R O T
P
F1
d2 d1
Fresnel zone radius: The vertical distance from P to the TR line in the Fresnel
zone. The first Fresnel zone radius is represented by F1 (n=1).
Formula of the first Fresnel zone radius:
Key Parameters in
The first Fresnel zone is the region where the microwave transmission energy is
the most concentrated. The obstruction in the Fresnel zone should be as little as
possible. With the increase of the Fresnel zone serial numbers, the field strength of the
receiving point reduces as per arithmetic series.
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
32 . 17
2 1
1
km d GHz f
km d km d
F
=
Key Parameters in
Clearance
Along the microwave propagation trail, the obstruction from buildings, trees, and
mountain peaks is sometimes inevitable. If the height of the obstacle enters the first Fresnel
zone, additional loss might be caused. As a result, the received level is decreased and the
transmission quality is affected. Clearance is used to avoid the case described previously.
The vertical distance from the obstacle to AB line segment is called the clearance of the
obstacle on the trail. For convenience, the vertical distance hc from the obstacle to the
ground surface is used to represent the clearance. In practice, the error is not big because
the line segment AB is approximately parallel to the ground surface. If the first Fresnel zone
radius of the obstacle is F
1
, then hc/ F
1
is the relative clearance.
A
B
h
1
h
2
d
d
1
d
2
hp
hc
hs
M
F
h3
h4
h5
h6
Factors Affecting Electric Wave Propagation
Terrain
The reflected wave from the ground surface is the major factor that affects the received level.
Smooth ground or water surface can reflect the part of the signal energy transmitted by the
antenna to the receiving antenna and cause interference to the main wave (direct wave). The vector
sum of the reflected wave and main wave increases or decreases the composite wave. As a result,
the transmission becomes unstable. Therefore, when doing microwave link design, avoid reflected
waves as much as possible. If reflection is inevitable, make use of the terrain ups and downs to block
the reflected waves.
Straight line
Reflection
Straight line
Reflection
Different reflection conditions of different terrains have different effects on electric
wave propagation. Terrains are classified into the following four types:
Type A: mountains (or cities with dense buildings)
Type B: hills (gently wavy ground surface)
Type C: plain
Type D: large-area water surface

The reflection coefficient of mountains is the smallest, and thus the mountain terrain
is most suitable for microwave transmission. The hill terrain is less suitable. When
designing circuits, try to avoid smooth plane such as water surface.
Factors Affecting Electric Wave Propagation
Terrain
Troposphere indicates the low altitude atmosphere within 10 km from the ground.
Microwave antennas will not be higher than troposphere, so the electric wave
propagation in aerosphere can be narrowed down to that in troposphere. Main effects
of troposphere on electric wave propagation are listed below:
Absorption caused by gas resonance. This type of absorption can affect the
microwave at 12 GHz or higher.
Absorption and scattering caused by rain, fog, and snow. This type of
absorption can affect the microwave at 10 GHz or higher.
Refraction, absorption, reflection and scattering caused by in homogeneity of
atmosphere. Refraction is the most significant impact to the microwave
propagation.
Factors Affecting Electric Wave
Propagation Atmosphere
Contents

Fading in Microwave Propagation
Fading
mechanism
A
b
s
o
r
p
t
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o
n

f
a
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R
a
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a
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S
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f
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K
-
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e

f
a
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g

D
u
c
t

t
y
p
e

f
a
d
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g

Fading time
Received
level
Influence of
fading on signal
F
a
s
t

f
a
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g

S
l
o
w

f
a
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U
p

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D
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n

f
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F
l
a
t

f
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F
r
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q
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s
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f
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F
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p
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Fading: Random variation of the received level. The variation is irregular and the
reasons for this are various.
Free Space Transmission Loss
Free space loss: A = 92.4 + 20 log d + 20 log f
(d: km, f: GHz). If d or f is doubled, the loss will increase by 6 dB.
Power level
P
TX
= Transmit power
G = Antenna gain
A0 = Free space loss
M = Fading margin
P
TX

Distance
GTX GRX

P
RX

A
0

M
Receiving threshold
G
d
G
f
P
RX
= Receive power
Absorption Fading
Molecules of all substances are composed of charged particles. These particles
have their own electromagnetic resonant frequencies. When the microwave frequencies
of these substances are close to their resonance frequencies, resonance absorption
occurs to the microwave.
Statistic shows that absorption to the microwave frequency lower than 12 GHz is
smaller than 0.1 dB/km. Compared with free space loss, the absorption loss can be
ignored.
Atmosphere absorption curve (dB/km)
1GHz 7.5GHz 12GHz 23GHz 60GHz
0.01dB
10dB
1dB
0.1dB
For frequencies lower than 10 GHz, rain loss can be ignored. Only a few db may
be added to a relay section.

For frequencies higher than 10 GHz, repeater spacing is mainly affected by rain
loss. For example, for the 13 GHz frequency or higher, 100 mm/h rainfall causes a
loss of 5 dB/km. Hence, for the 13 GHz and 15 GHz frequencies, the maximum relay
distance is about 10 km. For the 20 GHz frequency and higher, the relay distance is
limited in few kilometres due to rain loss.

High frequency bands can be used for user-level transmission. The higher the
frequency band is, the more severe the rain fading.
Rain Fading
Atmosphere refraction
As a result of atmosphere refraction, the microwave propagation trail is bent. It is
considered that the electromagnetic wave is propagated along a straight line above
the earth with an equivalent earth radius of , = KR (R: actual earth radius.)
The average measured K value is about 4/3. However, the K value of a specific
section is related to the meteorological phenomena of the section. The K value may
change within a comparatively large range. This can affect line-of-sight propagation.
R
e
R
e
R
e
R
K-Type Fading (1)
Microwave propagation
k > 1: Positive refraction
k = 1: No refraction
k < 1: Negative refraction
K-Type Fading (2)
Equivalent earth radius
In temperate zones, the refraction when the K value is 4/3 is regarded
as the standard refraction, where the atmosphere is the standard
atmosphere and R
e
which is 4R/3 is the standard equivalent earth radius.
K-Type Fading (3)
4/3
1
2/3
Actual earth radius (r)
Ground surface
2/3
4/3
1
k =
Equivalent earth radius (rk)
Ground surface
k =
Multipath fading: Due to multipath propagation of refracted waves, reflected
waves, and scattered waves, multiple electric waves are received at the
receiving end. The composition of these electric waves will result in severe
interference fading.
Reasons for multipath fading: reflections due to non-uniform atmosphere,
water surface and smooth ground surface.
Down fading: fading where the composite wave level is lower than the free
space received level. Up fading: fading where the composite wave level is
higher than the free space received level.
Non-uniform atmosphere
Water surface
Smooth ground surface.
Multipath Fading (1)
Ground surface
Multipath fading is a type of interference fading caused by multipath transmission.
Multipath fading is caused by mutual interference between the direct wave and
reflected wave (or diffracted wave on some conditions) with different phases.

Multipath fading grows more severe when the wave passes water surface or
smooth ground surface. Therefore, when designing the route, try to avoid smooth
water and ground surface. When these terrains are inevitable, use the high and low
antenna technologies to bring the reflection point closer to one end so as to reduce
the impact of the reflected wave, or use the high and low antennas and space
diversity technologies or the antennas that are against reflected waves to overcome
multipath fading.
Multipath Fading (2)
Frequency (MHz)
R
e
c
e
i
v
e
d

p
o
w
e
r

(
d
B
m
)

Normal
Flat Selective fading
Multipath Fading
Frequency Selective Fading
1h
Received level
in free space
Threshold level
(-30 dB)
Signal
interruption
Up fading
Multipath Fading Flat Fading
Duct Type Fading
Due to the effects of the meteorological conditions such as ground cooling in the
night, burnt warm by the sun in the morning, smooth sea surface, and anticyclone, a
non-uniform structure is formed in atmosphere. This phenomenon is called
atmospheric duct.
If microwave beams pass through the atmospheric duct while the receiving point is
outside the duct layer, the field strength at the receiving point is from not only the
direct wave and ground reflected wave, but also the reflected wave from the edge of
the duct layer. As a result, severe interference fading occurs and causes interruption
to the communications.
Duct type fading
Scintillation Fading
When the dielectric constant of local atmosphere is different from the ambient due to the
particle clusters formed under different pressure, temperature, and humidity conditions,
scattering occurs to the electric wave. This is called scintillation fading. The amplitude
and phase of different scattered waves vary with the atmosphere. As a result, the
composite field strength at the receiving point changes randomly.
Scintillation fading is a type of fast fading which lasts a short time. The level changes
little and the main wave is barely affected. Scintillation fading will not cause
communications interruption.
Scintillation fading
The higher the frequency is and the longer the hop distance is, the more severe the
fading is.
Fading is more severe at night than in the daylight, in summer than in winter. In the
daylight, sunshine is good for air convection. In summer, weather changes frequently.
In sunny days without wind, atmosphere is non-uniform and atmosphere subdivision

easily forms and hardly clears. Multipath transmission often occurs in such conditions.
Fading is more severe along water route than land route, because both the reflection
coefficient of water surface and the atmosphere refraction coefficient above water
surface are bigger.
Fading is more severe along plain route than mountain route, because atmosphere
subdivision often occurs over plain and the ground reflection factor of the plain is
bigger.
Rain and fog weather causes much influence on high-frequency microwave.

Summary
Contents

Category Effect

Equipment level
countermeasure
Adaptive equalization Waveform distortion
Automatic transmit power
control (ATPC)
Power reduction
Forward error correction
(FEC)
Power reduction
System level
countermeasure
Diversity receiving technology
Power reduction and
waveform distortion
Anti-fading Technologies
for Digital Microwave System (1)
Signal frequency
spectrum
Multipath fading
Slope equalization
Frequency spectrum
after equalization
The frequency domain equalization only equalizes the amplitude frequency
response characteristics of the signal instead of the phase frequency spectrum
characteristics.
The circuit is simple.
Frequency domain equalization
Time domain equalization
Time domain equalization directly counteracts the intersymbol
interference.
Before

T T T
After
C-n C0 Cn
Ts
-Ts -2Ts
Ts
-Ts -2Ts
Automatic transmit power control (ATPC)
Under normal propagation conditions, the output power of the transmitter is always
at a lower level, for example, 10 to 15 dB lower than the normal level. When
propagation fading occurs and the receiver detects that the propagation fading is
lower than the minimum received level specified by ATPC, the RFCOH is used to let
the transmitter to raise the transmit power.
Working principle of ATPC
Modulator Transmitter
Receiver Demodulator
ATPC
Receiver
ATPC
Transmitter Modulator
Demodulator
ATPC: The output power of the transmitter automatically traces and changes with
the received level of the receiver within the control range of ATPC.
The time rate of severe propagation fading is usually small (<1%). After ATPC is
configured, the transmitter works at a power 10 to 15 dB lower than the nominal
power for over 99% of the time. In this way, adjacent channel interference and
power consumption can be reduced.
Effects of ATPC:
Reduces the interference to adjacent
systems and over-reach interference
Reduces DC power consumption
Reduces up fading
Improves residual BER
ATPC adjustment process (gradual change)

ATPC dynamic range
-72
-55
-45
-35
-25
102 85 75 45
31
21

R
e
c
e
i
v
e
d

l
e
v
e
l

(
d
B
m
)

Link loss (dB)
High level
Low level

T
r
a
n
s
m
i
t
t
e
r

o
u
t
p
u
t

l
e
v
e
l

(
d
B
m
)

Cross-polarization interference
cancellation (XPIC)
In microwave transmission, XPIC is
used to transmit two different signals
over one frequency. The utilization
ratio of the frequency spectrum is
doubled. To avoid severe interference
between two different polarized signals,
the interference compensation
technology must be used.
Frequency configuration of U6 GHz frequency band (ITU-R F.384-5)

30MHz

80MHz 60MHz
340 MHz
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
680MHz

V (H)
H (V)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

30MHz

80MHz 60MHz
340MHz
680 MHz
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
V (H)
H (V)
1X 2X 3X 4X 5X 6X 7X 8X
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1X 2X 3X' 4X 5X 6X 7X 8X
Shape of waveguide interface
E
l
e
c
t
r
i
c

f
i
e
l
d

d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

Horizontal polarization
Vertical polarization
Diversity technologies
For diversity, two or multiple transmission paths are used to transmit the same information
and the receiver output signals are selected or composed, to reduce the effect of fading.
Diversity has the following types, space diversity, frequency diversity, polarization diversity,
and angle diversity.
Space diversity and frequency diversity are more frequently used. Space diversity is
economical and has a good effect. Frequency diversity is often applied to multi-channel systems
as it requires a wide bandwidth. Usually, the system that has one standby channel is configured
with frequency diversity.

Frequency diversity (FD)

Space diversity (SD)
H
f1
f2
Frequency diversity
Signals at different frequencies have different fading characteristics. Accordingly,
two or more microwave frequencies with certain frequency spacing to transmit and
receive the same information which is then selected or composed, to reduce the
influence of fading. This work mode is called frequency diversity.
Advantages: The effect is obvious. Only one antenna is required.
Disadvantages: The utilization ratio of frequency bands is low.
f1
f2
Space diversity
Signals have different multipath effect over different paths and thus have different fading
characteristics. Accordingly, two or more suites of antennas at different altitude levels to
receive the signals at the same frequency which are composed or selected. This work
mode is called space diversity. If there are n pairs of antennas, it is called n-fold diversity.
Advantages: The frequency resources are saved.
Disadvantages: The equipment is complicated, as two or more suites of antennas are
required.
Antenna distance: As per experience, the distance between the diversity antennas is
100 to 200 times the wavelength in frequently used frequency bands.
f1
Dh =
(nll/2)d
2h
1 l: wavelength
d: path distance
h1: height of the antenna at the transmit end
h
1

Tx
Rx
Dh
d
Dh calculation in space diversity
Approximately, Dh can be calculated according to this formula:
Apart from the anti-fading technologies introduced previously, here are two
frequently used tips:
Method I: Make use of some terrain and ground objects to block reflected waves.
Method II: high and low antennas
Protection Modes of
Digital Microwave Equipment (1)
With one hybrid coupler added between two
ODUs and the antenna, the 1+1 HSB can be
realized in the configuration of one antenna.
Moreover, the FD technology can also be
adopted.
The 1+1 HSB can also be realized in the
configuration of two antennas. In this case,
the FD and SD technologies can both be
adopted, which improves the system
availability.
Hybrid coupler
N+1 (N3, 7, 11) Protection
In the following figure, M
n
stands for the active channel and P stands for the standby
channel. The active channel and the standby channel have their independent
modulation/demodulation unit and signal transmitting /receiving unit.

When the fault or fading occurs in the active channel, the signal is switched to the
standby channel. The channel backup is an inter-frequency backup. This protection mode
(FD) is mainly used in the all indoor microwave equipment.
Products of different vendors support different specifications.
Protection Modes of
Switching
control unit
Switching
control unit
RFSOH
P
M
1
M
2
M
3
P
M
1
M
2
M
3
ch
1
ch
2
ch
P
ch
3
ch
1
ch
2
ch
P
ch
3
Protection Modes of
Configuration Protection Mode Remarks Application
1+0 NP Non-protection
Terminal of the network
1+1 FD
Channel protection
Inter-
frequency
Select the proper mode
depending on the
geographical condition
and requirements of the
customer
1+1 SD Equipment protection
and channel protection
Intra-
frequency
1+1 FD+SD
Equipment protection
Inter-
frequency
N+1 FD
Equipment protection
Inter-
frequency
Large-capacity
backbone network
Questions
What factors can affect the microwave propagation?

What types of fading exists in the microwave propagation?

What are the two categories is the anti-fading technology?

What protection modes are available for the microwave?
Summary
Importance parameters affecting microwave propagation
Various factors affecting microwave propagation
Various fading types in the microwave propagation (free space propagation fading,
atmospheric absorption fading, rain or fog scattering fading, K type fading,
multipath fading, duct type fading, and scintillation type fading)
Anti-fading technologies
Anti-fading measures adopted on the equipment: adaptive equalization, ATPC,
and XPIC
Anti-fading measures adopted in the system: FD and SD
Protection modes of the microwave equipment
Contents
Contents
5.1 Basis of Designing a Microwave Transmission Line
5.2 Procedures for Designing a Microwave Transmission Line

Requirement on the point-to-point line-of-sight communication

Objective of designing a microwave transmission line

Transmission clearance

Meanings of K value in the microwave transmission planning
Basis of Designing a Microwave
Transmission Line
Requirement on a Microwave
Transmission Line
Because the microwave is a short wave and has weak ability of diffraction, the
normal communication can be realized in the line-of-sight transmission without obstacles.
Line propagation
Irradiated wave
Antenna
D
In the microwave transmission, the transmit power is very small, only the antenna in
the accurate direction can realize the communication. For the communication of long
distance, use the antenna of greater diameter or increase the transmit power.
Requirement on a Microwave
Transmission Line
3 dB
Direction demonstration of the microwave antenna
Microwave antenna
Half power angle of the
microwave antenna
k = 4/3
The first Fresnel zone
Objective of Designing a Microwave
Transmission Line
In common geographical conditions, it is recommended that there be no
obstacles within the first Fresnel zone if K is equal to 4/3.
When the microwave transmission line passes the water surface or the
desert area, it is recommended that there are no obstacles within the first
Fresnel zone if K is equal to 1.
The knife-edged obstacle blocks partial of the Fresnel zone. This also causes
the diffraction of the microwave. Influenced by the two reasons, the level at the
actual receive point must be lower than the free space level. The loss caused by
the knife-edged obstacle is called additional loss.
Transmission Clearance (1)
When the peak of the obstacle is in the line
connecting the transmit end and the receive end, that
is, the HC is equal to 0, the additional loss is equal to
6 dB.
When the peak of the obstacle is above the line
connecting the transmit end and the receive end, the
additional loss is increased greatly.
When the peak of the obstacle is below the line
connecting the transmit end the receive end, the
additional loss fluctuates around 0 dB. The
transmission loss in the path and the signal receiving
level approach the values in the free space
transmission.
-24
-26
-22
-20
-18
-16
-14
-12
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
4
2
-28
6
8
-2.5
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Loss caused by block of knife-edged obstacle
HC/F1
A
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
a
l

l
o
s
s

(
d
B
)

Clearance calculation
h
2
d
1
d
2
d
h
b
h
s
h
c
h
1
K
d d
h
b
2 1
0785 . 0 =
Calculation formula for path clearance
s
b
c
h h
d
d h d h
h
+
=
1 2 2 1
The value of clearance is
required greater than that
of the first Fresnel Zones
radius.
stands for the projecting
height of the earth.
b h
K stands for the atmosphere refraction factor.
To present the influence of various factors on microwave transmission, the field
strength fading factor V is introduced. The field strength fading factor V is defined as the
ratio of the combined field strength when the irradiated wave and the reflected wave
arrive at the receive point to the field strength when the irradiated wave arrives at the
receive point in the free space transmission.
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = =
2
1
2
0
cos 2 1
F
h
E
E
V
ce
t
E
0
E
: Combined field strength when the irradiated wave and reflected wave
arrive at the receive point
: Field strength when the irradiated wave arrives at the received point
in
the free space transmission
: Equivalent ground reflection factor
The relation of the V and can be
represented by the curve in the figure on the
right.
In the case that is equal to 1, with the
influence of the earth considered, H
C
/F1 is
equal to 0.577 when the signal receiving level
is equal to the free space level the first time.

In the case that is smaller than 1, H
C
/F1 is
approximately equal to 0.6 when the signal
receiving level is equal to the free space level
the first time.
When the H
C
/F1 is equal to 0.577, the
clearance is called the free space clearance,
represented by H
0
and expressed in the
following formula:
H
0
= 0.577F

1 = (d1d2/d)
1/2
-40
-35
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
0
.
6
4
1
.
0
4
1
.
3
1
1
.
4
3
1
.
5
6
1
.
7
6
1
.
9
3
2
.
0
1
2
.
1
0
2
.
2
6
2
.
3
9
2
.
4
6
2
.
5
4
2
.
6
6
2
.
7
8
2
.
8
5
3
.
0
2
0.2
0.5
0.8
1
VdB
Relation curve of V and Hc/F1
H
C
/F1=N

Meaning of K Value in Microwave
Transmission Planning (1)
To make the clearance cost-effective and reasonable in the engineering, the height
of the antenna should be adjusted according to the following requirements.
In the case that is not greater than 0.5, that is, for the circuit that passes the
area of small ground reflection factor like the mountainous area, city, and hilly
area, to avoid over great diffraction, the height of the antenna should be
adjusted according to the following requirements:
When K = 2/3, H
C
0.3F1 (for common obstacles)
H
C
0 (for knife-shaped obstacles)
The diffraction fading should not be greater than 8 dB in this case.
Meaning of K Value in Microwave
Transmission Planning (2)
In the case that is greater than 0.7, that is, for the circuit that passes the area of
great ground reflection factor like the plain area and water reticulation area, to avoid
over great reflection fading, the height of the antenna should be adjusted according to
the following requirements
When K = 2/3, H
C
0.3F1 (for common obstacles)
H
C
0 (for knife-edged obstacles)
When K = 4/3, H
C
F1
When K = , H
C
1.35F1 (The deep fading occurs when H
C
= 2
1/2
F1.)
If these requirements cannot be met, change the height of the antenna or the route.
Step 1 Determine the route according to the engineering map.

Step 2 Select the site of the microwave station.

Step 3 Draw the cross-sectional chart of the terrain.

Step 4 Calculate the parameters for site construction.
Procedure for Designing a Microwave
Transmission Line
Transmission Line (1)
We should select the area that rolls as much as possible, such as the hilly
area. We should avoid passing the water surface and the flat and wide
area that is not suitable for the transmission of the electric wave. In this
way, the strong reflection signal and the accordingly caused deep fading
can be avoided.
The line should avoid crossing through or penetrating into the mountainous
area.
The line should go along with the railway, road and other areas with the
convenient transportation.
Step 1 Determine the route according to engineering map.
The distance between two sites should not be too long. The distance
between two relay stations should be equal, and each relay section should
have the proper clearance.
Select the Z route to avoid the over-reach interference.
Avoid the interference from other radio services, such as the satellite
communication system, radar site, TV station, and broadcast station.
Step 2 Select the site of the microwave station.
Over-reach
interference
f1 f1 f1
f2 f2 f2
The signal from the first
microwave station
interferes with the
signal of the same
frequency from the third
microwave station.
Draw the cross-sectional chart of the terrain based on the data of each site.
Calculate the antenna height and transmission situation of each site. For the
line that has strong reflection, adjust the mounting height of the antenna to
block the reflected wave, or have the reflection point fall on the earth
surface with small reflection factor.
Consider the path clearance. The clearance in the plain area should not be
over great, and that in the mountainous area should not be over small.
Step 3 Draw the cross-sectional chart of the terrain.
Calculate the terrain parameters when the route and the site are already
determined.
Calculate the azimuth and the elevation angles of the antenna, distance
between sites, free space transmission loss and receive level, rain
fading index, line interruption probability, and allocated values and margin
of the line index.
When the margin of the line index is eligible, plan the equipment and
frequencies, make the approximate budget, and deliver the construction
chart.
Step 4 Calculate the parameters for site construction.
Input
Input
There is special network
planning software, and the
commonly used is CTE
Pathloss.
Questions
What are the requirements for microwave communication?

What is the goal of microwave design?

What extra factors should be taken into consideration for microwave
planning?

Can you tell the procedure for designing a microwave transmission line?

Thank you
www.huawei.com

Digital Microwave Communication Principles-A

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Copyright 2006 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

In sunny days without wind, atmosphere is non-uniform and atmosphere subdivision

Rain and fog weather causes much influence on high-frequency microwave.

Copyright 2006 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

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