Water Treatment

Water tretment process

Basic steps
Aeration Coagulant, pH Adjustment Disinfectant (Cl2, NaOCl)

Screening Raw water

Raw Water Storage

Mixing

Flocculation

Sedimentation

Filtration
Clear Well

Distribution

Coagulation
Find the requirement of alum and lime to treat water (107 L/day) at alum dosage (30 mg/L) when original alkalinity present is 8.5 mg/L.

 Alum required =

107 30 10001000

= 300 /

4.5 mg/L alkalinity (CaCO3) is required for 10 mg/L dosage of alum. Alkalinity required = (4.5/10)* 30 8.5 = 5mg/ L 56 mg of CaO is required for obtaining 100 mg/L of CaCO3. Lime required = 5*(100/56)*(107 / 106 ) = 90 kg/day

Sedimentation
Factors affect for size of settling basin Detention time Overflow rate Settling velocity of particle Horizontal velocity (for rectangular tanks)

 Detention time

Detention time (days) Basin volume(m3) Volumetric flow rate (m3/day)

Horizontal velocity

= 0

0 Flow area

 Settling velocity of particle =

Total surface area of the basin

Overflow rate (surface loading) 0 =

0 Over flow rate (m3/m2day)

Length of the tank =

Strokes law
2 2 = = 1 18 18
, Density of particle and water respectively Particle diameter Viscosity of water Specific gravity of particle Acceleration due to gravity

Filtration
The required filtration rate is calculated using the formula below
(3
3 ) ( 2 ) = 2

Filter backwash
The amount of water required for backwash depends on, Design of the filter Quality of the water being filtered
(3
3 ) ( 2 ) = 2

Chlorination
Chlorine usage in the treatment of 18.9 million litres of water is 7.71 kg/day. The residual after 10 min contact is 0.2 mg/L. Compute the dosage in milligrams per liter and chlorine demand of the water.

 Dosage= 7.71 *1000/ 18.9*106 = 0.407 mg/L Chlorine demand = Dosage Residual = 0.407- 0.2 = 0.207 mg/L

Activated Carbon Filters

Activated carbon filtration can effectively reduce, certain organic compounds such as volatile organic compounds, pesticides and benzene and chlorine in drinking water. the quantity of lead and harmless taste- and odor-causing compounds

Treatment Principles
An adsorptive process in which the contaminant is attracted to and held (adsorbed) onto the surface of the carbon particles.

Medium for an activated carbon filter

petroleum coke bituminous coal lignite wood products coconut shell or peanut shells

Preparation of activated carbon

Subject carbon medium to steam and high temperature (2300F) without oxygen to activate the product the carbon can process by an acid wash or coat with a compound to enhance the removal of specific contaminants activation produces carbon with many small pores and, therefore, a very high surface area Activated carbon is then crushed to produce a granular or pulverized carbon product This creates small particles with more outside surface area available for adsorption

 Activated carbon particle

 The efficiency of the adsorption process is influenced by

carbon characteristics (particle and pore size, surface area, density and hardness) the contaminant characteristics (concentration, tendency of chemical to leave the water, solubility of the contaminant, and contaminant attraction to the carbon surface) contact time between the water and the carbon (the rate of water flow)

Breakthrough point
When the activated carbon becomes saturated (all adsorption sites filled), contaminants can flow from the carbon back into solution. This is called breakthrough. In order to prevent breakthrough, some AC filtration units will shut off the water supply after a specified number of gallons have been treated

Advanced Water Treatment

Ion exchange
In the ion exchange process an insoluble resin removes ions of either positive charge or negative charge from solution and releases other ions of equivalent charge into solution with no structural changes in the resin

Purpose of using ion exchanger in water treatment

Remove
Anions- nitrate, fluoride, arsenic and other contaminants Cations Calcium, Magnesium

Types of ion exchangers

Natural: Proteins, Soils, Lignin, Coal, Metal oxides, Aluminosilicates (zeolites) (NaOAl2O3.4SiO2).

Synthetic zeolite gels and most common polymeric resins (macroreticular, large pores).

Ion exchange resin

 Plastic beads made of cross linked polystyrene with functional groups (sulphonates) that act as ion exchange sites. The sulphonate group has a negative charge allowing it to attract and hold (exchange) positive ions or cations such as H+, Ca+2, Mg+2, Fe+2, Na+. Those ions remain on the bead until the bead encounters other ions for which it has a greater affinity

Classification of ion exchange resins

Resin classification
Resins are classified based on the type of functional group they contain and their % of cross-linkages Cationic Exchangers:
- Strongly acidic functional groups derived from strong acids e.g., R-SO3H (sulfonic). - Weakly acidic functional groups derived from weak acids, e.g., R-COOH (carboxylic).

Cation exchange Softening

Use to reduce hardness Cation exchange reaction ++ + + + 2 ++ represent the anionic component of the resin (Ca and Mg cations are absorbed and an equivalent amoun of Na ions is released to the solution) Reaction during regeneration ++ + 2 + ++

 Regeneration cycle consist of three stages

Fill the resin bed with brine Slow rinse Back wash

 The sodium concentration after regeneration should not exceed recommended maximum value The concentration of sodium in the softened water increases in proportion to the hardness ions removed Ex: Hardness of 43 mg/l produces water containing 20 mg/l of sodium

Anionic Exchangers
Strongly basic functional groups derived from quaternary ammonia compounds, R-NOH. Weakly basic - functional groups derived from primary and secondary amines, R-NH3OH or RR-NH2OH.

Anion exchange for nitrate removal

Strongly basic anion resins are the most effective exchangers for nitrate removal 4 + 3

4 + 3

 Disadvantages
High operating cost The problem of brine water disposal

Factors influencing resin life

Type of resin Chemical characteristics of the water being treated Operating temperature Regeneration temperature Regeneration level ( salt applied per unit bed volume) Water feed rate Bed depth

Membrane Processes
Microfiltrtion

 A membrane is a selective barrier that permits the separation of certain species in a fluid by combination of sieving and diffusion mechanisms Membranes can separate particles and molecules and over a wide particle size range and molecular weights

 Membranes commonly consist of a porous support layer with a thin dense layer on top that forms the actual membrane
Active layer

Porous support layer

Pressure-Driven Membrane Processes

Separate by size and chemistry Concentration, Porosity Effects

P=

MF 10-300 kPa

UF 50-500 kPa

NF 0.5-1.5 MPa

RO 0.5-1.5 MPa

Mid-size organic substances, multiple charged ions

High molecular substances, viruses Bacteria, parasites, particles Low molecular substances, single charged ions

Membrane filtration configuration

The growing use of MF

1. More attention paid to environmental problems linked to drinking and non-drinking water 2. Increased demand for water (using currently available sources more effectively) 3. Market power

Pore size of MF membranes

Pores and pore geometries

Porous MF membranes consist of polymeric matrix in which pores are present. The existence of different pore geometries implies that different mathematical models have been developed to describe transport phenomena.

MF membranes preparation
Stretching Semycristalline polymers (PTFE, PE, PP) if stretched perpendicular to the axis of crystallite orientation, may fracture in such a way as to make reproducible microchannels. The porosity of these membranes is very high, and values up to 90% can be obtained.

Stretched PTFE membrane

Phase inversion (PI)

A polymer is transformed in a controlled manner from liquid to solid phase. The process of solidification is initiated by the transition from one liquid state into two liquids (liquid-liquid demixing) at a certain stage during demixing. The high polymer concentration phase will solidify and a solid matrix is formed. By contrtolling the initial stage of phase transition the membrane morphology can be controlled and porous as well as nonporeous membranes can be prepered.

Chemical phase inversion 0.45 m PVDF membrane

4.

Sintering

This method involves compressing a powder consisting of particles of a given size and sintering at high temperatures. The required temperature depends on the material used.

HEAT

pore

Materials used in MF
Synthetic polymeric membranes:
a) Hydrophobic b) Hydrophilic PTFE, teflon PVDF PP PE

Ceramic membranes

Alumina, Al2O3 Zirconia, ZrO2 Titania, TiO2 Silicium Carbide, SiC

Cellulose esters PC PSf/PES PI/PEI PA PEEK

1. Polymeric MF membranes

Phase inversion

Stretching

Track-etching

2. Ceramic MF membranes

Anodec, anodic oxidation (surface)

US Filter, sintering (cross section, upper part)

Retentate: how will it be used?

1.Sent to a treatment plant 2.Discharged into a body of water 3.Sent to a storage facility 4.For ground applications 5.Recycled back to water source

Some other industrial applications

1. Waste-water treatment 2. Clarification of fruit juice, wine and beer 3. Ultrapure water in the semiconductor industry 4. Metal recovery as colloidal oxides or hydroxides 5. Cold sterilization of beverages and pharmaceuticals 6. Medical applications: transfusion filter set, purification of surgical water 7. Purification of condensed water at nuclear plants 8. Separation of oil-water emulsions

Membrane Processes
Reverse Osmosis

Pore size in reverse osmosis

Reverse Osmosis
This process will allow the removal of particles as small as ions from a solution. Reverse osmosis is used to purify water and remove salts and other impurities in order to improve the color, taste or properties of the fluid. The most common use for reverse osmosis is in purifying water. It is used to produce water that meets the most demanding specifications that are currently in place. It can be used to purify fluids such as ethanol and glycol, which will pass through the reverse osmosis membrane, while rejecting other ions and contaminants from passing.

Contd.
Reverse osmosis uses a membrane that is semipermeable, allowing the fluid that is being purified to pass through it, while rejecting the contaminants that remain. The process of reverse osmosis requires a driving force to push the fluid through the membrane, and the most common force is pressure from a pump. As the concentration of the fluid being rejected increases, the driving force required to continue concentrating the fluid increases. Reverse osmosis is capable of rejecting bacteria, salts, sugars, proteins, particles, dyes, and other constituents that have a molecular weight of greater than 150-250 daltons.

What is osmosis?
If two solutions of different concentration are separated by a semi-permeable membrane which is permeable to the smaller solvent molecules but not to the larger solute molecules, then the solvent will tend to diffuse across the membrane from the less concentrated to the more concentrated solution. This process is called osmosis. The energy which drives the process is usually discussed in terms of osmotic pressure.

How Reverse Osmosis Works

Pressure and flux range

Membrane process Microfiltration Ultrafiltration Nanofiltration Pressure range (bar) 0,1 - 2,0 1,0 - 5,0 5,0 20 Flux range (l/m2hbar) >50 10 50 1,4 - 12

Reverse Osmosis

20 - 100

0,05 - 1,4

The pressures used in reverse osmosis range from 20 to 100 bar and the flux from 0,05 to 1,4 l / m2h

Energy Requirements Pressure driven processes

Power devices applied in pressure driven membrane process

Energy requirements
The energy consumption to pressurize a liquid is given by:

E pump

q P

pump

A turbine may be utilized to recover the energy:

Eturbine turbine q P

q flux

Membrane selection
o

o o

Membrane accounts for 15 to 40 percent of the price in reverse osmosis. Membranes must be replaced periodically CAREFUL MEMBRANE SELECTION IS ESSENTIAL GOOD DESIGN: Consistent performance Needs less frequent membrane cleaning Reasonable consum of power Little operational attention

SELECTION CRITERIA: Chemical tolerance Mechanical suitability Price Cleanability Separation performance

Membrane configurations in RO
Spiral-wound configuration

Next logical step from a flat membrane but with higher packing density 300 1000 m2/m3
Permeate is collected in the central tube

Tubular configuration

Not self supporting in contrast to hollow fiber modules Permeate crosses the membrane layer to the outside
Low surface-volume ratio Usually the active layer is inside

Capillary/hollow fiber configuration Fibers diameter: <0.5 mm

Flux velocity: low (up to 2.5 m/s) Feed: inside-out or outside-in Surface area/volume: high Pressure drop: low (up to 1 bar) Maintenance: hard Cleaning: poor

Applications
Production of drinking water Treatment of urban waste water Production of water for industrial uses Treatment of different wastes Concentration of fruit juices, white of an egg, whey... Fermentation